CURRENT AFFAIRS – 29/03/2024

CURRENT AFFAIRS – 29/03/2024

Skyroot Aerospace successfully test-fires stage-2of Vikram-1 launch vehicle

(General Studies- Paper III)

Source : The Hindu

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Skyroot Aerospace, achieved a significant milestone with the successful test-firing of Stage-2 of the Vikram-1 space launch vehicle, known as Kalam-250.

• This test took place at the propulsion testbed of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) located at the Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) in Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.

Key Highlights

• Importance of Stage-2:
  • Stage-2 plays a pivotal role in the launch vehicle’s ascent, facilitating its transition from the atmospheric phase to the deep vacuum of outer space.
  • Its performance is crucial for the success of the entire mission.
  • Significance of Vikram-1 Launch:
    • The Vikram-1 launch marks a historic moment for the Indian space sector, being the first private orbital rocket launch in the country.
    • It follows the suborbital space launch of India’s initial private rocket, the Vikram-S, which occurred in November 2022.
  • Technological Features of Kalam-250:
    • The Kalam-250 employs a high-strength carbon composite rocket motor and utilizes solid fuel along with a high-performance Ethylene-Propylene-Diene terpolymers (EPDM) Thermal Protection System (TPS).
  • Collaboration with ISRO:
    • The Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), another center of ISRO, contributed to the test by providing its proprietary head-mounted safe arm (HMSA) for ensuring the safe operation of the rocket stage.

About Vikram-1 space launch vehicle

• The Vikram-1 space launch vehicle is a significant project developed by Skyroot Aerospace, an Indian startup aerospace company.
• This multi-stage launch vehicle is designed to place around 300 kg payloads in Low Earth Orbit.
• Design and Features:
  • Vikram-1 is an all-carbon-fibre-bodied rocket with a capacity to carry multiple satellites into orbit.
  • It features 3D-printed liquid engines and is equipped with a carbon ablative flex nozzle for precise control.
  • The first stage of Vikram-1, named Kalam-1200, is made of ultra-light, high-strength carbon composite and can withstand extreme combustion pressure of 82.5 atmospheres.
• Launch History:
  • The maiden flight of Vikram-1 is planned for the first quarter of 2024 from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre.
  • The rocket will undergo a series of launches throughout 2024 to Low Earth Orbit.
• Test-Firing and Development:
  • Skyroot Aerospace successfully conducted a proof pressure test on the first stage of Vikram-1, Kalam-1200, on 18 December 2023.
  • Stage-2 of Vikram-1, known as Kalam-250, was successfully test-fired at the Indian Space Research Organisation’s (ISRO) Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota on 28 March 2024.
  • The test of Kalam-250 marked a milestone in the Indian space industry, showcasing the rocket’s propulsion capabilities and advanced technology.
• Future Plans:
  • Vikram-1 is part of a family of small-lift launch vehicles, with plans for heavier launchers like Vikram II and Vikram III in the future.
  • Skyroot Aerospace is focused on achieving further milestones to prepare for the maiden orbital launch of Vikram-1 in 2024.

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The countdown to a pandemic treaty

(General Studies- Paper II)

Source : The Hindu

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In March 2021, a call for a pandemic treaty was issued by 25 heads of government and international agencies, highlighting a pivotal moment in global health governance.

• The ninth meeting of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Body (INB), the final stage of negotiations for the 30-page World Health Organization (WHO) Pandemic Agreement, began recently, marking a significant development in global health efforts.

Key Highlights

• Importance of the WHO Pandemic Agreement:
  • The WHO Pandemic Agreement aims to rectify the systemic failures exposed by the COVID-19 crisis, with the primary objective of bolstering global defenses and preventing future pandemics from escalating into catastrophic human crises.
  • It is regarded as a landmark initiative, being the world’s first pandemic treaty, designed to enhance pandemic prevention, preparedness, and response, with equity as a central focus.
• Key Features and Objectives:
  • The agreement seeks to address the glaring inequities observed during the COVID-19 pandemic, including inadequacies in preparedness at national levels and a lack of coordination on the international stage.
  • It encompasses various critical aspects such as pathogen surveillance, healthcare workforce capacity, supply chain and logistics, and technology transfer to support the production of essential medical supplies.
  • Moreover, it emphasizes the importance of managing antimicrobial resistance, strengthening health systems, improving sanitation, and advancing towards universal health coverage.
  • Equitable Access to Medical Products:
    • One of the prominent themes throughout the text of the agreement is the emphasis on ensuring equitable access to medical products.
    • This principle is reflected across different provisions, encompassing language on principles, articles on preparedness, production, technology transfer, access and benefit sharing, as well as supply and procurement.
  • Establishment of Conference of Parties (COP):
    • Negotiating texts have proposed the establishment of a Conference of Parties (COP) to oversee the implementation of the Pandemic Agreement.
    • This suggests that the Agreement could be structured as a classic international treaty adopted under Article 19 of the WHO Constitution, rather than under the alternative Article 21 opt-out regulations.
  • Divergent Reactions at Negotiations:
    • Developing countries have largely embraced the revised negotiating text, marking a departure from previous years of negotiations.
    • However, developed countries have uniformly criticized the text, highlighting elements they consider ‘redlines’, particularly concerning financing and intellectual property (IP) matters.
    • Notably, countries like Australia, Canada, the European Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States have labeled the text as a ‘step backwards’.
    • Additionally, there is a general disagreement regarding the modalities for conducting negotiations in this final stretch.
    • India’s Perspective:
      • India, representing the South-East Asia region, has stressed the importance of clarity regarding obligations and responsibilities, especially between developed and developing countries, to effectively operationalize equity within the Agreement.
    • Contentious Issue:
      • The most contentious aspect of the Agreement revolves around the establishment of a global system for sharing pathogens and their genetic codes while ensuring equitable access to the benefits derived from research, including vaccines.
      • Developing countries are hesitant to share information on pathogen spread and evolution if they perceive little in return.
      • This situation was exacerbated during the COVID-19 pandemic by the phenomenon of “vaccine nationalism”.
      • Proposal for WHO Pathogen Access and Benefit-Sharing (PABS) System:
        • The current draft of the Agreement introduces a quid pro quo mechanism known as the WHO Pathogen Access and Benefit-Sharing (PABS) System.
        • This system mandates countries to share genome sequence information and samples with WHO-coordinated networks and databases.
        • In exchange for access to these data, manufacturers of diagnostics, therapeutics, and vaccines would be required to provide a portion of their products free of charge or at not-for-profit prices.
        • The provision aims to establish legal obligations on benefit-sharing for all users of biological materials and genetic sequence data under PABS.
      • Importance of PABS System for Equity:
        • A robust PABS system is deemed essential, particularly for low- and middle-income countries, including certain African nations, to promote equity in access to medical countermeasures.
        • However, many developed countries and the pharmaceutical industry express dissatisfaction with the language on access and benefit sharing in the current negotiating text, citing perceived trade-offs.
      • Challenges in Global Governance, Enforcement, and Accountability:
        • Another major challenge in the Agreement negotiations is the issue of global governance, enforcement, and accountability.
        • Without adequate mechanisms for enforcement and accountability, the entire endeavor risks being symbolic.
        • Insufficient enforcement capabilities also hinder coordination efforts for pandemic countermeasure stockpiles, international medical response teams deployment, and monitoring and data sharing.
      • Thorny Issue of Intellectual Property Waivers:
        • One of the thorniest issues within the Agreement negotiating text is the proposed requirement for firms that received public financing to waive or reduce their intellectual property royalties.
      • Effectiveness of the Agreement:
        • Even if the Global North were to reach a consensus on key issues such as technology transfer, the PABS System, and intellectual property waivers, the Agreement risks being rendered ineffective without robust enforcement mechanisms.
        • The existing International Health Regulations are legally binding but failed to prevent unjust travel or trade restrictions and hoarding of vaccines and other medical countermeasures during the COVID-19 pandemic.
        • Proposed Decision-Making Body:
          • Proposals for a decision-making body, comprising the COP along with a secretariat, have been included in the negotiating text.
          • However, it remains uncertain whether negotiators will reach consensus on this structure.
          • This model resembles the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) summits, where all nations receive equal voting rights.
        • Potential Outcomes of Negotiations:
          • The possibility of not reaching an Agreement is not entirely ruled out, although such an outcome would be detrimental.
          • Failing to secure an agreement would represent a significant setback, hindering efforts to rebuild trust and coordination between nations.
          • It underscores the importance of collective action in confronting the threat of future pandemics, acknowledging that no single government or institution can address the challenge in isolation.

About the World Health Organization (WHO)

• The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for international public health.
• Established on April 7, 1948, the WHO is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, with six regional offices and 150 field offices worldwide.
• The organization’s primary mandate is to promote health and safety globally, assist vulnerable populations, set international health standards, collect data on global health issues, and facilitate scientific and policy discussions related to health.
• Mission and Activities:
  • The WHO focuses on a wide range of health issues, including communicable diseases like HIV/AIDS, Ebola, malaria, and tuberculosis, as well as non-communicable diseases such as heart disease and cancer.
  • It advocates for universal health care coverage, monitors public health risks, coordinates responses to health emergencies, and promotes overall health and well-being.
• Achievements:
  • The WHO has been instrumental in public health achievements such as the eradication of smallpox, near-eradication of polio, and the development of an Ebola vaccine.
• Governance and Funding:
  • The World Health Assembly (WHA), composed of 194 member states, governs the WHO. The WHA elects the director-general, currently TedrosAdhanom Ghebreyesus, and sets goals, priorities, budget, and activities.

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Understanding India’s coal imports

(General Studies- Paper III)

Source : The Hindu

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The onset of hot weather across the country has once again raised concerns about electricity shortages.

• In recent years, the combination of unpredictable weather patterns and a rapidly growing economy has significantly increased electricity demand, posing challenges to reliable power supply.

Key Highlights

• Shortage of Domestic Thermal Coal:
  • A primary factor blamed for the electricity shortage is a scarcity of domestic thermal coal, commonly used in electricity generation.
  • August 2023 witnessed the highest electricity shortage, attributed to a poor monsoon leading to heightened demand and reduced supply from certain sources.
  • Notably, the shortage in August amounted to about 840 million units, which represented just 0.55% of the month’s demand.
  • This indicates that the challenge lies not in the availability of domestic thermal coal itself but rather in logistical issues hindering its movement to power plants.
  • Moreover, 0.6 million tonnes of domestic coal would have addressed this shortage even as over 30 million tonnes of coal were available in coal mines in August and September.
  • A Ministry of Power advisory also acknowledges logistical issues associated with the railway network, further corroborating this assessment.
• Need for Addressing Logistical Challenges:
  • While addressing logistical challenges will require time, it is imperative to explore interim solutions to mitigate shortages.
  • Given that coal currently represents India’s primary means of meeting electricity shortfalls, exploring alternative coal sources becomes crucial.
• Exploring Alternative Coal Sources:
  • One common misconception is that imports are the only alternative source of coal.
  • Coal India Ltd. sells approximately 10% of its production—equivalent to 70-80 million tonnes annually—through spot auctions.
  • Although the price of coal obtained through such auctions may be higher than that obtained by many plants, it is considerably lower than the price of imported coal.
  • Despite some plants having the logistical capability to procure coal from auction sites, they do not perceive auctions as a viable alternative.
• Importance of Thermal Coal Imports:
  • While auctions for domestic coal can mitigate shortages, some level of thermal coal imports may still be necessary to blend with domestic coal.
  • The Ministry of Power (MoP) recently issued an advisory to power generators, urging them to monitor their coal stocks until June 2024 and import coal as needed, up to a limit of 6% by weight.
  • Interpretation of the Advisory:
    • The advisory has been widely interpreted as a mandate for importing 6% coal.
    • However, it’s crucial to distinguish between an advisory and a mandate, especially considering the potential cost implications.
    • While electricity generators may view such advisories as mandates due to the ability to pass on increased costs to consumers, electricity regulators must exercise prudence in interpreting them.
    • The advisory itself repeatedly refers to itself as an “Advisory” and states that generators may “opt for blending as per the requirements.”
    • Moreover, preliminary analysis suggests that a marginal increase in blending, just 0.3% more than the 3.4% imported coal blended between April to December 2023, could have addressed all shortages during that period.
    • There is a misconception that 6% coal imports are necessary when, in reality, it is an indicative upper limit that may be required.
    • Mandatory blending of 6% imported coal could significantly increase the variable cost of coal-based electricity, which still constitutes about 60% of India’s electricity supply.
  • Cost Implications and Regulatory Concerns:
    • Increased coal imports and blending could result in higher power purchase costs, as evidenced by a 15% increase in FY23 attributed to demand, coal imports, and prices of imported coal.
    • Regulatory mechanisms enabling automatic blending without consulting distribution utilities risk authorizing higher costs for an extended period, potentially beyond justifiable levels.
  • Variability in Power Plant Generation and Location:
    • Not all power plants operate under the same conditions.
    • Pit-head plants, which typically generate the most electricity, are located close to mines, away from ports, and generally do not experience coal shortages.
    • Conversely, plants situated far from mines, which typically generate less electricity, are more prone to shortages during periods of high demand.
  • Addressing Coal Shortages:
    • The discourse surrounding coal shortages in the country requires a course correction.
    • Assuming that coal imports are the default solution overlooks the underlying logistics bottlenecks preventing coal from reaching plants where it is needed.
    • Instead of relying solely on imports, efforts should focus on overcoming logistical challenges and identifying the most cost-effective alternative sources of coal.
    • Regulatory commissions and distribution utilities play a crucial role in ensuring that all coal-based plants remain vigilant to the possibility of coal shortages.
    • They should facilitate the identification of the cheapest alternative sources of coal, which may not necessarily involve imports.
    • Failure to address these issues could result in inefficient coal procurement, ultimately burdening consumers with higher costs.

Electricity sector in India

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Tech giants facing EU scrutiny

(General Studies- Paper II)

Source : The Hindu

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On March 25, the European Union initiated probes into whether tech giants Apple, Alphabet (Google), and Meta (Facebook) violated the new Digital Markets Act (DMA).

• This move reflects a broader trend of governments seeking greater control over the operations of major tech firms.
• If found guilty, these companies could face fines of up to 10% of their global revenues, with higher penalties of up to 20% for repeat violations of the DMA.

Key Highlights

• Recent Actions Against Apple:
  • The announcement of these investigations follows closely after the EU fined Apple over €1.84 million (USD 2 million) for engaging in anti-competitive behavior in the streaming music app market.
  • Additionally, the U.S. Department of Justice recently filed a case against Apple, accusing the company of stifling competition and maintaining high prices in the smartphone market.
• Digital Markets Act (DMA) Overview:
  • The DMA, which came into full effect on March 7, aims to regulate large online companies referred to as ‘gatekeepers’.
  • These gatekeepers serve approximately 450 million users in the EU.
  • Notably, the DMA identified six companies as gatekeepers in September last year:
    • Alphabet, Amazon, Apple, ByteDance (owner of TikTok), Meta, and Microsoft.
  • Significance of the DMA:
    • The DMA represents a significant step in regulating the operations of major tech firms in the EU.
    • By designating certain companies as gatekeepers and imposing strict penalties for violations, the EU seeks to promote competition, protect consumers, and ensure fair and transparent digital markets.
  • Allegations and Investigations:
    • The European Union’s competition commissioner, announced two investigations into Alphabet and Apple’s alleged “anti-steering” practices.
    • These probes aim to determine if the companies are restricting user choice by preventing app manufacturers from directly communicating and contracting with end-users.
    • Apple’s Alleged Lack of User Choice:
      • The third investigation focuses on Apple’s provision of user choice, particularly regarding the ease of uninstalling apps and changing default settings.
      • Concerns were raised about the web browser choice screen depriving end-users of fully informed decisions, and certain Apple apps, such as ‘Photos,’ being uninstallable, violating DMA requirements.
    • Meta’s “Pay or Consent” Policy:
      • The fourth inquiry targets Meta’s “pay or consent” policy, where users must pay to use Facebook and Instagram without targeted advertising.
      • However, the DMA mandates that gatekeepers must obtain users’ consent for using personal data across different services, and this consent must be freely given.
    • Alphabet’s Prioritization of Services:
      • The fifth investigation examines whether Alphabet, Google’s parent company, prioritizes its own services in Google Search.
      • Google Shopping, Google Flights, and Google Hotels are highlighted as potential beneficiaries of preferential treatment.

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Measuring internet freedom in India in the last 10 years

(General Studies- Paper II)

Source : the Hindu

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For five consecutive years, India has ranked at the top of the global list of countries implementing internet bans, with approximately 60% of all shutdowns worldwide occurring within its borders between 2016 and 2022.

• These shutdowns, imposed by state authorities, have often been justified on grounds of national security and threats to public order.
• However, rights groups argue that such actions also contravene court directives.

Key Highlights

• Extent of Internet Shutdowns:
  • According to data compiled by the Software Freedom Law Centre (SFLC), the Indian government enforced a total of 780 shutdowns between January 1, 2014, and December 31, 2023.
  • These shutdowns escalated during significant events such as protests against the Citizenship Amendment Act in 2019, the revocation of Article 370 in 2019, and the introduction of Farm Bills in 2020.
  • Notably, disruptions to internet services in India accounted for over 70% of the global economic losses in 2020, with the country experiencing over 7,000 hours of shutdowns in 2023 alone.
• Regional Trends and Longest Blackouts:
  • Jammu and Kashmir witnessed the highest number of shutdowns, totaling 433, in the last 12 years.
  • In 2023, the longest blackout occurred in Manipur, lasting from May to December, amidst ethnic clashes.
  • As of February 15, internet shutdowns remained active in Haryana amid ongoing farmers’ protests.
• Legal Framework and Judicial Response:
  • While Indian States and Union Territories can impose internet shutdowns in cases of “public emergency” or “public safety” under the Indian Telegraph Act, the law lacks clear definitions of what constitutes an emergency or safety issue.
  • The Supreme Court, in the landmark AnuradhaBhasin v. Union of India case, ruled that internet shutdowns violate fundamental rights to freedom of expression, particularly when prolonged indefinitely.
  • Additionally, courts have mandated governments to make shutdown orders public, a provision that has been inadequately followed.
• India’s Failure to Meet International Standards:
  • Activists have criticized India for failing to adhere to the ‘three-part test’ in imposing internet blackouts in regions like Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) and Manipur.
  • According to international law, any action blocking access to content or violating fundamental rights should be lawful, pursue a legitimate aim, and adhere to standards of necessity and proportionality.
  • However, the majority of internet outages in the last decade were localized to specific districts, cities, and villages, raising concerns about the proportionality of these measures.
• Global Trends in Internet Shutdowns and Content Blocking:
  • Globally, protests are the most common reason for internet shutdowns, followed by information control and political instability.
  • Between 2015 and 2022, over 55,000 websites were blocked in India, primarily under section 69A of the IT Act by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology and the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.
  • URLs were often blocked due to their association with organizations banned under the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act.
  • Censorship on Social Media:
    • Additionally, nearly 30,000 social media URLs, including accounts and posts, were blocked between 2018 and 2022.
    • These requests were mainly directed to social media platforms.
    • Reasons for blocking websites often include the perceived threat of cybercrime, with India experiencing a significant rise in cybercrime cases, increasing from 5,693 cases in 2013 to over 65,000 cases last year, marking a 434% increase between 2016 and 2022 according to the National Crime Records Bureau.
  • India’s Internet Freedom and Human Rights Record:
    • India’s ranking in terms of internet freedom has remained relatively stagnant over the past three years, hovering around 50 points in the Freedom House report.
    • This represents a decline from the scores of 59 points in 2016 and 2017, indicating a deterioration in the environment for human rights online.
    • The latest report highlights a global trend of declining internet freedom, with deteriorating conditions observed in 29 countries.

About the Indian Telegraph Act

• The Indian Telegraph Act, 1885, served as the foundational legislation in India governing various forms of communication, including wired and wireless telegraphy, telephones, teletype, radio communications, and digital data communications.
• It granted the Government of India exclusive jurisdiction and privileges for establishing, maintaining, operating, licensing, and overseeing all forms of communication within Indian territory.
• This encompassed a wide range of technologies and mediums through which communication occurred.
• Licensing and Oversight:
  • The Act mandated licensing procedures for the operation of communication services and imposed regulatory oversight to ensure compliance with established standards and regulations.
• Law Enforcement Provisions:
  • The legislation authorized government law enforcement agencies to monitor, intercept, and tap communication channels under conditions defined within the Indian Constitution, typically in cases involving national security or criminal investigations.
• Effective Date and Amendments:
  • The Indian Telegraph Act, 1885, came into force on 1 October 1885.
  • Since its enactment, numerous amendments were passed to update the legislation in response to evolving technologies and communication practices.
• Note: The Telecommunications Bill 2023 repealed the Indian Telegraph Act, marking a significant legislative change in the telecommunications sector.

About Section 69A of the IT Act

• Section 69A of the Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000, is a provision that empowers the Government of India to issue directions to block public access to any information generated, transmitted, received, stored, or hosted in any computer resource if it is deemed necessary in the interest of the sovereignty and integrity of India, defense of India, security of the state, friendly relations with foreign states, public order, or for preventing incitement to the commission of any cognizable offense relating to the above.

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Households across the world waste1 billion meals a day, says UN report

(General Studies- Paper II)

Source : The Hindu

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In 2022, households worldwide wasted over one billion meals per day, despite 783 million people grappling with hunger and a third of the global population facing food insecurity.

• This revelation comes from the Food Waste Index Report 2024, a collaborative effort between the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and WRAP (Waste and Resources Action Programme), a U.K.-based non-profit organization.

Key Highlights

• Magnitude of Food Waste:
  • The report highlights that in 2022, a staggering 1.05 billion tonnes of food waste were generated, inclusive of inedible parts.
  • This amounted to an average of 132 kilograms per capita and nearly one-fifth of all food available to consumers.
• Distribution of Food Waste:
  • A significant portion of food waste, 60%, occurred at the household level, with food services accounting for 28% and retail contributing 12% to the overall waste.
  • This distribution underscores the need for targeted interventions across different sectors to tackle the issue effectively.
• Rural vs. Urban Trends:
  • Interestingly, rural areas tend to waste less food compared to urban areas, attributed to greater diversion of food scraps to pets, livestock, and home composting.
  • This finding highlights the role of local practices and infrastructure in mitigating food waste.
• Importance of Data Infrastructure:
  • The report emphasizes the critical importance of expanding and strengthening data infrastructure to track and monitor food waste accurately.
  • It notes that many low- and middle-income countries lack adequate systems for measuring progress towards meeting Sustainable Development Goal 12.3, which aims to halve food waste by 2030, particularly in the retail and food services sectors.
  • Global Tracking and Progress:
    • Currently, only four G-20 countries (Australia, Japan, U.K., U.S.) along with the European Union have food waste estimates suitable for tracking progress towards the 2030 target.
    • This indicates a pressing need for more comprehensive data collection efforts globally to address the food waste crisis effectively.
  • Food Waste Across Income Levels:
    • Contrary to popular belief, the report highlights that food waste is not solely a problem in affluent nations.
    • Average levels of household food waste varied only slightly across high-income, upper-middle, and lower-middle-income countries, differing by just 7 kg per capita.
    • The observation suggests that factors beyond wealth influence food waste patterns.
    • Factors Influencing Food Waste:
      • The report identifies hotter countries as potentially generating more food waste per capita in households, attributed to higher consumption of fresh foods with substantial inedible parts and a lack of robust cold chains.
      • This correlation underscores the influence of climate and infrastructure on food waste generation.
    • Impact on Climate Change and Biodiversity:
      • Food loss and waste are significant contributors to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, generating 8-10% of annual global emissions, surpassing those of the aviation sector by almost five times.
      • Additionally, food waste contributes to biodiversity loss, occupying nearly a third of the world’s agricultural land.
      • The economic toll of food loss and waste is estimated at $1 trillion.
    • Integration into Climate Plans:
      • Despite the significant impact of food loss and waste on climate change, only 21 countries had included reduction efforts in their climate plans or Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) as of 2022.
      • The report emphasizes the need for governments to prioritize food loss and waste reduction and integrate them into their climate strategies to enhance climate ambition.
    • Definition and Tracking:
      • The report defines “food waste” as food and associated inedible parts removed from the human food supply chain, while “food loss” encompasses quantities of crop and livestock human-edible commodities that exit the production/supply chain before reaching the retail level.
      • The Food Waste Index, overseen by UNEP, tracks global and national food waste generation at the retail and consumer levels.

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