Maratha Empire

INTRODUCTION #

From a humble peasant society of western India to having a pan India identity, Marathas were a great empire builders. Expert in Guerrilla Warfare, they relied on centralised administration for conducting their affairs.

POLITICAL HISTORY OF MARATHAS #

The Deccan was never betrothed by nature to Hindustan. The triple line of natural boundaries made by Vindhya and Satpura Mountains and Nar- mada River was enough to keep the sovereign of Delhi in their own countries. But the fertile lands, fabulous wealth, diamonds and Gold induced every ruler of the northern India to this land. But conquer- ing Deccan was a risk to lose the northern country. For emperor Aurangzeb, the affairs of Deccan were not new thing has be had been viceroy of the province twice. Aurangzeb after becoming emperor overlooked the state of affairs in Deccan and mean- while a new power had arisen which sprang from a very insignificant begmiung to an impregnable dominance In the future.

The history of Marathas can be best studied with the help of first hand source material like Bakhar. State papers, Court histories, Chronicles and accounts of contemporary travellers, who came to India and made observations of Maharashtra during the period of Marathas.

Why less sources of history of Marathas? #

There are ample records of the history of Peshwa period but there is a paucity of source material regarding history of Shivaji. The reason is that the period of Chhatrapati was a formative period of

the Marathas. The rulers never spared any time for maintaining any records. These rulers were to fight with the enemies from the north and the south. In this state of affairs, the state, whatever material had with it got destroyed.

Then, there was also a general illiteracy and the lack of printing presses.

What are Bakhars? #

The Bakhars are important in the construction of history of the Marathas. Bakhar means to tell the news or record of happenings or biography of an eminent person and is written on its own orders. Bakhars are written in Modi script of Marathi lan- guage. Some historians say that Bakhars are based on hearsay and secondary information and can not cent percent be relied upon them. Among the Bakhar literature, the Sabhasad Bakhar is the prime and the most important, which is written by Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad, a minister of Chhatrapati Rajaram in 1694. In Marathi language, Shakavalies and official files and diaries also are treated as sources of this history.

The Marathas had never made any mark in the history at India before the reign of Shah jahan.

What was role of Bijapur in initial rise of Marathas? #

Marathas were the peaceful peasants like any other Hindu castes and never gave trouble to the rulers of Delhi.

The King of Bijapur was responsible for educat- ing this hardworking race. The Marathas were a large proportion of his subjects andtheir language Marathi, which was an offshoot of Sanskrit, became the lan- guage of the revenue department of the Kingdom

of Bijapur. The Marathas started getting recruited into the light infantry, then cavalry in which they showed their extraordinary aptitude. They rose to prominence in Bijapur and Golconda.

The Muslim ruler of Bijapur Ibrahim Adil Shah appointed these Marathas in key position and changed the language of the court from Persian to Marathi.

One of these officers was Shahji Bhosle who rebelled against Shah Jahan in 1634. Shahaji Raje Bhosle the extremely ambitious and capable general of the Sultan of Bijapur was the early exponent of the Guerilla warfare. He brought the early Marathas into prominence which later became the most domi- nant power in Deccan under his son Shivaji.

Initial Life of Shivaji #

Shivaji was just 12 years younger than his rival Aurangzeb. His father had bid the foundation of the Maratha Empire but he is considered the real founder of the Maratha Kingdom whose capital was Raigarh. His elder brother Sambhaiji was killed In a military expedition in Karnataka. Shivaji was born in Shivneri, to a Maratha lady jijabai, an ardent devotee of Shiva.

What is Gamini Kava? #

Shivaji is known for pioneering the Shiva Sutra or Lava which refers to Guerilla warfare techniques.

Shivaji was brought up in Poona, where he was noted for his courage and clever perspectives. He mixed with the wild highlanders of the neighboring Chats and learnt every turn and path of the Konkan. When he found that the hills & forests are miserably fortified by the Bijapur soldiers he resolved upon seizing them. His father Shahaji was in service of Deccan Sultanates and kept changing his sides between the Nizam Shahi of Ahamad Nagar and Shah of Bijapur. His Jagir was Pune where he was able to sustain a small army.

Shivaji began by surprising the castle of Torna, 20 miles from Pone in 1645 at the age of 16 years. From there he started taking fortress by fortress at the cost of the Bijapur Kingdom. He took Kondana & Raigarh in 1647. Sindugarh and Purandar were also taken soon. This was enough to make Ibrahim Adil Shah resolve to teach him a lesson.

His father Shahaji was imprisoned. But clever Shivaji approached Emperor Shah Jahan and his intervention was enough to make the Bijapur sultan release Shahaji. Shivaji was now a Mughal Sardar.

Battle of Pratapgarh 1656 #

For next 5 years, Shivaji kept quiet, gathering the forces. In 1656 he started his campaign again and captured Kalyao, Bhiwandi etc. This time Adil Shah sent his general Fatal Khan to bring Shiva dead or alive. But this general of Bijapur was clawed to death by Shivaji with his Baghnakhas, the conceited weapon. After that the Bijapur forces were routed and this was the first significant victory of Marathas over Bijapur. Till 1662, there were minor unsuccess- ful attempts to kill Shivaji by the sultan of Bijapur, when finaIly a peace treaty was arranged.

Struggle with Mughals #

The territories of Bijapur were attacked by Shivaji at will, but his ambitions led him to turn his attention to the Mughal territory to the North. He pushed his raids to the doors of Aurangabad. The growing power of Maratha was to be crushed anyhow. The Mughal viceroy of the Deccan was Shayata Khan, one relative of the Mughal emperor, who was ordered to carry out this task Shayasta Khan attacked Poona and captured the fort, where Shivaji played in his early childhood Shivaji plundered the fort, killed Shayasta Khan and then raided Surat, even the factory of the British was attacked.

The Raja of Amber, Jaisingh was the new com- mander of the Mughals.

Jaisingh was able to compel Shivaji for a peace treaty which enshrined that ,Maratha would give 23 forts to the Mughals and Shivaji would appear in the court of Aurangzeb, on an assurance that he would be treated properly. But there, in the court of the King of India, he was asked to stand among the class III courtiers. The self esteem of Shivaji made him retreat from there, the Mughals imprisoned him but he was able to escape in disguise.

He resumed his old sway in the mountains in 1666. The emperor became to late in reconciliation. ln 1671, Surat was again raided and the Maratha swarms spread and plundered the southerly past in Tanjore. They levied “Chauth” wherever they could.

In1674, Shiva defeated the Mughal general Daler Khan and held his coronation with all the pomp at Raigarh and attained the title of “Chhatrapati”.

Just when he was getting ready for a great leap forward, a sudden illness put an end to his extraor- dinary career in 1680 at the age of 53. The Maratha Empire could not get stability during his career.

Post Shivaji Affairs – The Era of Peshawas #

After death of Shivaji, Aurangzeb took the command in his hands and in 1681, arrived at Burhanpur. He sent prince Muazzam, who after running over Konkan moved to Bijapur. Aurangzeb pushed forward to Ahamednagar. Both of them were annexed to Mughal Empire. As soon as the Mughals turned their back, Sambhaji swiftly led his cavalry, crossed Khandesh and burnt Burhanpur and set the whole country ablaze. Before Mughals could retreat, they safely returned to their heavens. The Mughal emperor now turned his attention only on to crushing the Marathas.

The revenue of the Marathas was cut as Bijapur and Ahamednagar was now firmly annexed to the Mughal Kingdom. In 1689, sambhaji was captured and executed. His infant son Sahuji was taken cap- tive.

Rajaram, brother of Sambhaji sought refuge at Jingee in the Konkan and in 1700 his son Shivaji III under the regency of his mother Tarabai took the Maratha Command. But the MughaIs released Sahuji and now the Marathas were in two rival camps.

There was a civil war between Sahuji and Tara- bai, in which Sahuji got victorious, with the help of Balaji Vishwanath. Balaji Vishwanath was made Peshwa in 1713 and thus he founded the line of the Peshwas.Tarabai set up a rival camp at Kolhapur.

Balaji Vishwanath: The first Peshva #

Balaji Vishwanath, a Brahmin was the first in the line of the hereditary Peshwas or Prime Ministers. In 18th century the Peshwas became the holders of the Maratha Power. Balaji was Instrumental in the release of Shahuji’s family from Mughals and took his side in the civil war with Tarabai. Aurangzeb had already died in 1707 and the power in Delhi was with Farrukhsiyar, who was placed on the throne by Sayyid Brothers. Later Farrukhsiyar was replaced

with Raft ul Darjat in 1719. This time, Balaji Vishwanath supplied a 15000 army to MughaIs and in return got the right to extract autonomy to Marathas and right to levy Chauth from 6 Deccan Provinces. In 1720 BaIaji Vishwanath died. Sahuji appointed his son Baji Rao I as Peshwa at the age of 20 years.

Baji Rao I #

Baji Rao-I is the most popular among the 9 Peshwas of Marathas and the Maratha power was on its zenith during his time. It was Baji Rao I who instead of Deccan focused. the Maratha attention to North. He could sniff the weakness of the Mughals and the decaying Mughal empire.

He was aware of the weakness of the Mughal puppets at Delhi.

The famous saying “Attock to Cuuack” refers to the Maratha Kingdom as visualized by Baji Rao-I, who wanted to plant the Saffron Flag on the walls of Attock.

Baji Rao-I fought 41 battles and lost none. This able prime Minister of Marathas was able to create a confederacy of the Marathas who had dispersed after the death of Shivaji.

This confederacy included the Kingdoms of Scindias under Ranoji Shinde of GwaIior. Holkars under Malharrao of Indore, Gaekwads under Pilaji of Baroda. and Pawars under Udaiji of Dhar, He was able to get 1/3rd of the Bundelkhand after death of Maharaja Chhattrasal.

Baji Rao I transferred the seat of administration of the Marathas from Satara to Pune.

Baji Rao-l died in 1740 of some disease and was followed by his son BaIaji Baji Rao.

Balaji Baji Rao #

Balaji Bajirao is better known with the name of Nanasaheb Peshwa During his time, Pune became the cradle of Maratha Power.

When Sahuji died in 1749, he had no sons and thus made the Peshwas as rulers of the Maratha Power. So Peshwas became the real rulers of the Marathas since the times of BaIaji Baji Rao.

The Mughals signed Abamadiya Treaty with the Marathas when BaIaji Bajirao was Peshwa As

per this treaty. Mughals were restricted to Delhi and the northern India was controlled by Marathas from Pune.

Rise of Afghans #

In June 1747, Ahamad Shah Durrani or Ahamad Shah Abdali rose to power and established the Durrani Empire in Afghanistan. He crossed Indus River in 1748 and annexed Lahore. In 1749, the MughaI Empire lost Sindh and Punjab. In 1757, there was another attack and he sacked Delhi, Agra, Mathura, Vrandavan etc. The Mughals accepted this formidable Afghans’ suzerainty. He installed Alamgir II on the throne of Delhi. The East India Company also accepted his suzerainty. But the Marathas did not accept them. Balaji Bajirao sent Raghunath Rao to counter the Afghans. Raghunath Rao was able to throw out Timor Shah (son of Ahamad Shah Abdali and Governor of Lahore, Mul- tan and Kashmir) and brought the Lahore, Multan and Kashmir under the Marathas.

The rise of this new Hindu Kingdom was not acceptable to the Mughals and the Afghans. The afghan hero raised a Holy war against the Infidels and warriors from Pashtun & other tribes answered his call. This culminated in the Third Battle of Pani- pat which paved the way for British Rule in India.

THIRD BATTLE OF PANIPAT 1761 #

Third Battle of Panipat was fought in 1761. This was the largest war of the 18th century. The Marathas were led by Sadashivrao Bhau. The battle followed a two months seige and skirmishes. The Marathas were badly defeated in the war suffering a life of around 60-70 thousand warriors. They lost their ablest commanders. Balaji Bajj Rao could not absorb this shock and died soon afterwards.

The result of this battle was that Marathas were expelled from Punjab. But still, in Western India & Konkan they were supreme. In Rajputana and Central India they kept raiding. Immediately after the Third Battle of Panipat, Balaji Bajirao, the Third Peshwa of Marathas had died. He was succeeded by his son Madhavrao-I. This 16 years youth was to be assisted by his Uncle Raghunath Rao in the administrative affairs.

In 1762, they sat out for a raid in Karnataka. But before that raid was carried out, there was a conflict

between Madhavrao I and his uncle Raghunath Rao. Raghunath Rao abandoned the troop midway and raided the villages nearby. The discord increased and there was a war or sort between the two relatives.

Madhavrao I died shortly afterwards of Tuber- culosis, His brother Narayan Rao became the next Peshwa who was murdered by Raghunath Rao in 1773. Thus, Raghunath Rao became the Peshwa, though he was not legitimate heir.

Treaty of Surat 1775 #

Late Narayan Rao’s widow, Gangabai, gave birth to a posthumous son, who was legal heir to the throne. The newborn infant was named Sawai Madhav Rao. Twelve Maratha chiefs, led by Nana Phadnavis, one of the ministers of the late Narayan Rao conspired to make the infant as the new Peshwa and rule under him as regents.

Since Nana Phadnavis was assisted by 11 more ministers and this conspiracy is called “Barabhai Conspiracy” or the Conspiracy of the Twelve.

But Raghunath Rao approached British to pur- chase their support. He signed the Treaty of Surat in March 1775.

As per this treaty, Raghunath Rao ceded the territories of Salsette and Bassein to the British, so that the British restore him to Poona. But this treaty created confusion. The Regulating Act was already in place, which had made Bombay subordinate to Calcutta. Governor General in Council at Calcutta did not approve this treaty and held it invalid. They sent one representative Colonel Upton to Pune to annul this treaty and make a new treaty with the Governor General in Council at Calcutta. Raghunath Rao made another treaty but that treaty was not accepted by Nana Phadnavis and he granted a port to French. The British retaliated this with sending troops to Poona. This triggered the First Anglo Maratha War.

FIRST ANGLO MARATHA WAR 1779 #

The Maratha force was joined by Mahadji Shinde the, “most celebrated & Brave Maratha” after Shivaji. The combined Maratha forces fought with the forces of the British and Raghunath Rao at Wadgaon. Mahadji Shinde and Tukajirao Holkar commanded the Maratha army.

In this battle the British were badly defeated. The British Forces surrendered at Wadgaon in 1779, on January 12. 4 days later on January 16, the British signed a Treaty of Wadgaon as dictated by Mar- athas. As per this treaty, the British relinquished all the territories acquired by the East India Company in Western India since 1773 and promised to pay Rs. 41000/- (Fourty One Thousand) as indemnity to Mahadji Scindia. Raghunathrao was captured and imprisoned.

But again this Treaty of Wadgaon was held invalid by Warren Hastings, who quoted that the Presidency of Bombay had no legal power to sign such treaty. The Calcutta Presidency sent another force. This force harassed Mahadji at Sipri and thus Mahadji was compelled to sign a new treaty, which had some less favourable articles (to Marathas). This new treaty called “Treaty of Salbai” was signed between the British and the Marathas.

Treaty of Salbai (May 17,1782) #

Treaty of SaIbai was signed between the Mar- athas and the British East India Company. As per this treaty:

• British acknowledged Madhavji Rao Narayan as Peshwa of the Maratha Empire.
• British Recognized the Territorial claims of Madhav Rao Scindia in west of Yamuna River.
• Raghunath Rao was freed and a pension was fixed for them.
• British East India Company got the control of the Salsette.

British promised to support Marathas in case they attack Hyder Ali of Mysore and retake the terri- tories of Carnatic. In summary, the Treaty of Salbai which was the outcome of the First Anglo Maratha war maintained the status quo. Gujarat was restored to the Marathas, and only Salsette with Elephanta and two other small islands in Bombay harbour was retained by the English.

MARATHA ADMINISTRATION DUR- ING SHIVAJI TIMES #

The king was the pivotal of the administration of the Marathas. He was the only person able to run

the difficult administrative machinery. Every one whether at high or low position with the sanction of the king could not act upon or execute the plan or design. Even the Pandit rao, who was the head for the religions matters, never took action on his own or without consultation or order of the king. The king was the final authority in every matter of the Maratha administration. He was the sovereign power in the kingdom.

After the king the next in succession came the Ashta Pradhan Mandal or council, in which there were eight members as the

1. Peshwa or the Mukhya Pradhan.
2. Mazumdar or the Amatya.
3. Wakins or the Mantri.
4. Dabir or the Sumant.
5. Sumis or the Sachiv.
6. Panditrao or the royal priest.
7. Senapati or the commander-in-chief.
8. Nyayadhish or the chief justice.

Except the Panditrao and the Nyayadhish all other members of the council were to perform their military duties as and when required in the circumstances in addition to their regular and civil responsibilities.

Then, there was a committee of three members to look after the provinces in which they were put incharge. In their absence there were agents working in their courts and looking after their portfolios, which were appointed by the king. In addition to this, there were other seven to eight subhedars, who were appointed to look after the territories of the Mughals conquered by the Marathas.

After the Ashta Pradhan Mandal or council, the Secretary was the next important segment in the Maratha administration. He was the Sachiv or the Chitins of the king. Among the most powerful and influential secretaries. Balaji Avaji was the man of exceptional abilities and caliber.

Despite this arrangement the Ashta Pradhan Council was assisted by some clerks like the Dewan, Mazumdar, Fadnis, Sabnis, Karkhanis, Chitnis, Jam- dar and the Potnis. There were eighteen Karkhanas and twelve Mahals or departments in the adminis- tration.

There were several Prants and districts in the Maratha administration. There is no unanimity on the exact number of the prants and districts.

The Deshmukhs and the Deshpandes were work- ing as the officers of the prants and districts, which Ied them to exploit the rayats.

The king therefore, had done away the authority of the Deshmukhs and the Deshpandes and appointed new officers to look after the administration of the prant and the district.

In the same way, the Darkhdars were the hereditary officers at the prant level and for use as check on the non-hereditry officers appointed by the Maratha Government. In this way, Chhatrapati Shivaji created the wellknown administrative setup in his kingdom.

During the period of the Peshwas, the Kamvis- dars and the Mamlatdars were appointed to look after the districts and parbhanas. But the Deshmukhs and the Deshpandes were used as checks on the authority and the accounts submitted by the Kamvisdars and the MamIatdars to the Government.

MILITARY   ADMINISTRATION    OF MARATHAS #

Army #

The Maratha Empire was primarily a military organization and its civil institutions were closely connected with its military system. Shivaji had a deep concept of the Military organisation of the Marathas. He wanted a strong monarchy as the solu- tion to prevailing disorder and anarchy. Naturally, Shivaji began his operation with caution initially, which was with the small forces attached to the Jagir of his father. He preferred light Infantry suiting to the guerrilla warfare of the mountainous area of Maharastra. His young Mavalas were the fittest soldiers for guerrilla campaigns in the Maratha territory and were the highly appreciated warriors in the military history of the country.

He organized the Infantry into various groups which were kept under the office of Naik, Hawaldar,

Jumledar, Hazari and the Samobat. These officers were paid handsome salary regularly.

In the same way cavalry was organized into Bargirs and the Shiledars.

State-provided everything to the BaIgirs from the State expenditure where as shiledars were to spend for horses, weapon and all other things from their own.

The cavalry was organized into various sections as the Infantry and had the officers of the same rank but the Panch Hazari was an additional officer. They were also paid handsome salary either in cash or kind.

Navy #

Shivaji felt the need of a strong naval power to check the growing power of the Siddis of Jangira, who had threatened the security of the Maratha territories in Konkan. Shivaji’s had an organized navy and various vessels as Gallivates, Ghurabs, Tarandes, Tarus and Pagas, which were organized into two groups of two hundred vessels in each.

Shivaji’s navy was commanded by Dariya sarang.

Forts and Strongholds #

The most important achievement of the Mara- tha king, Chhatrapati Shivaji was the construction of forts and strongholds. Shivaji constructed and repaired around 240-280 forts. These forts were managed by a group of several officers as per the strict orders and supervision of the king. Shivaji had set aside one Iakh twenty five thousand Hons for meeting the basic needs of people in the forts during the period of emergency. In the same way he also set aside one lakh seventy five thousand Hons for repair of several forts.

Artillery #

Shivaji had very effective and regular depart- ment of ArtiIIery. which was known as Tophkhana. Muslim Topchi’s were hired in the Topkhana.