The Indo-Greek Rulers

INTRODUCTION #

The post Maurayan phase was marked by the gradual disintegration of the Magadha Empire. It followed the beginning of various Hellenistic and control Asian rule in India, occupying and conse- quently competing, to increase their influence in India. Their Advent also marked the rise of vari- ous schools of Art viz. The Gandhara School, the Mathura school and the Amravati school. These schools were patronized by various ruling classes and had distinct features in their Artistic expression.

During the last two centuries of BC era, more than 30 Hellenistic kings ruled northwest and northern Indian subcontinent. The knowledge about these has been attained via the coins issued by them. The areas under these Hellenistic Kings were Taxila, Pakistan’s Punjab, Pushkalavati (Peshavar) & Sakala. Indo-Greek rulers have been mentioned as “Yavanas’’ in the Indian literature. Some of the kings of indo-Greek dynasties are briefed here.

Antiochus II: Approximately, in 250 BC, Diodotus, a governor of Bacteria, proclaimed his independence. He was one of the first such inde- pendent rulers. Antiochus II, who was a king of the Hellenistic Seleucid kingdom, marched towards India and defeated the India king Subhagsena of Kabul in around 206 BC.

Demetrius I of the Bactria (200-180 BC): Demetrius I of Bactria was son of Euthydemus and conquered the extensive areas in Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan.He is credited with real Indo-Greek expansion in India and has been referred in Greek Sources as “King of Indians”. His coins bear legends in Greek and Prakrit written in Greek and Kharosthi

script. The coins were issued in silver and one of the coins was known as “Heracles”. His capital was Sakala (Sialkot Pakistan) which he named Euthydemia in memory of his father.His coins have been found in several parts of modern Pakistan, Afghanistan and central asia.

Apollodotus I: Apollodotus I was the indo Greek ruler who ruled around 174-165 BC in the western and southern parts of the indo-Greek King- doms covering the area from Taxila in Punjab to Sindh. Apollodotus I was the first king who ruled in India only and this is said to be real founder of the indo-Greek kingdom of India and known as first “Real Indo Greek”. He was one of the generals of the Demetrius I of Bactria. We come to know about apollodotus I through the bilingual Indian standard square coins by him. The animals such as elephant and bull are depicted in his coins.

Apollodotus II: Apollodotus II ruled in Punjab 80-65 BC and was an important ruler. He is said to have re-conquered the Taxila. He seems to be of same dynasty of which meander belonged to.

Menander II: Menander II reigned around 90-85 BC in Gandhara, north of modern Pakistan and parts of Afghanistan. He has been mentioned as the mighty Yavana King of Sakala. His capital Sakala was located in modern Punjab and refers to Sialkot, Pakistan. In the “Milindapanho’’ dialogues between the Meander II and Nagasena have been recorded. He was Buddhist indo- Greek ruler and is the only indo-Greek ruler who is greatly respected in India. The coins of Meander have been engraved with “Dhammachakka” of Buddhism. He issued Gold Coins also and one of the coins are known as “Athene Promachus”.

THE   SHAKAS   RULERS   &   THE SATRAP SYSTEM #

The Shakas or the Scythians destroyed Indo- Greek rule in India. They are sometimes refers as the ancient Iranian people of horse-riding nomadic pastoralists. The 2nd century BC saw an upheaval in the Central Asia. The invasion by the Central Asian nomadic tribes and tribes from the Chinese region was responsible for the migration of the Shakas towards India. The construction of Great wall of china partially contributed to migration of the Hiung-chi, Wu-san Yueh-chi tribes from that region. These tribes migrated westwards and southwards. The first tribe to migrate was Yeuh-chi, which displaced the Scythians. Some sources say that the Scythians attacked Bactria and they entered the Indian subcontinent through the Bolan Pass. This was the foundation of Shaka rule in India. Most of the information about Shakas has been derived from Numismatics.

Moga: the earliest Shaka Ruler of India #

Maues (80-65 BC) or Moga was the earliest Shaka ruler. He established Shaka power in Gand- hara. His capital was ‘’Sirkap’’ and he issued a large number of copper coins and few silver coins. Some sources indicate that he assumed the title of “maharaja mahatma” and his coins are bearing the images of Indian deities viz. Shiva, and Buddha. He used Greek and Kharosthi in coin legends.

The famous Taxila Copper Plate is ascribed to him as Moga Inscriotion. It was found in area of Taxila in modern Pakistan. Taxila copper plate bears a precise data and it is written in Kharosthi. Taxila Copper Plate mentioned about the dedication of a relic of the Buddha Shakyamuni to a Buddhist mon- astery by the Shaka ruler Patika Kusulaka. Patika Kusulaka is also mentioned in Mathura lion capital.

Azes-I & Azes II #

Maues and his successors were able to conquer large the areas of Gandhara, they were unsuccessful against the indo-Greek kings remaining behind the Jhelum river in eastern Punjab. Azes-I put an end to the remnant of the Greek rule in India. He annexed the kingdom of the Indo-Greek Hippostratos after a long resistance. In 58 BC, Azes-I founded the Azes Era, which coincides with the Vikram Era in

India. Azes-I was succeeded by Azilises, who was succeeded by Azes II. There are some coins issued jointly by Azes-I and Azilises and by Azilises and Azes II. Azes II reigned between the 35 and 12 BC and he is considered to be the last Shaka ruler and was lost to Kushanas. Kushanas led to the foundation of Kushana Empire in North West India.

The Satrap system #

The pressure from the Parthians (Iranians) and later from Kushanas, the Shakas got divided into

5 branches with their different seats of power at different places in modern Pakistan, India, and Afghanistan. These rulers were known as satraps and Mahasatraps. Thus, Shakas are known to have proliferated the Satrpa system. The Satrap system was directly influenced by the Achaemenid and Seleucid administrations. The satraps were in Kapisa in Afghanistan, Taxila in western Punjab, Mathura, Ujjaini and upper deccan.

Kapisa satraps #

The Moga inscription or copper plate mentions two names Liaka Kusulaka and his son Patika Kus- ulaka. They ruled Chuksha and Pusha Pura. Patika Kusulaka had adopted the title of “Mahadandapati”. Both of them were straps under Moga.

Mathura satraps #

First known satraps of Mathura are Hagana and Hagamasa. One of their successor named “Rajuvula” has been mentioned as Mahasatrapa in the Mora inscription , that was found near Mathura. Other satrapas are Sodasha, Sivadatta, and Sivaghosha. The coins of the Mathura Satraps have been engraved with standing image, which resembled Laxmi and Three Elephants.

Satrapas of Western India #

First known satrapa in the Western India was Bhumaka, who ruled in Saurastra. Bhumaka’s successor Nahapana was an important ruler of the Western satrapas. Some sources say that Nahapana was son of Bhumaka. Bhumaka has been discussed in the Periplus of Erythrean Sea.

Ujjain Satrapas #

Founder of the Ujjaini Satrapa is considered Castana or Shastana or Chastana. Chastana is con-

sidered to have won a battle against Satvahanas. Chastana used 3 scripts viz. Greek, Kharosthi and Brahami in his coin legends. He has been mentioned as Tiastenes of Ozene (Chastana of Ujjain) in Ptole- my’s Geography.

Rudramadaman-I #

Chastana’s son was Jayadaman and grandson was Rudradaman. Rudradaman was a great figure. His exploits are described in the Junagarh Rock inscription dated Shaka Year 72, which means

72 + 78 = 150 AD. (Christian era +78 = Shaka Era). He represents himself as a Mahasatrapa. The Junagarh rock inscription says that he was chosen as a protector by all castes and thus adopted the ‘’Mahasatrapa’’ title. He defeated Satvahana king “Saatkarni” for two times and thus is considered to be the greatest of the Shaka rulers. The long rivalry between Rudradaman and Satatkarni was tried to be done away with the family relations (probably rudraman’s daughter was given in marriage to the Satavahanas), but this could not stop the enmity between them. In one of the wars, Satakarni’s life was spared because of the family relations. Rudradaman conquered Malwa, Saurastra, Gujarat, Konkan and Yudehas of Rajputana.Rudradamana is known to be good in knowledge of Grammar. The successors of Rudradaman ruled till the end of the 4th century AD and finally lost their power to the Arab Chieftains. Junagarh Rock Inscription credits Rudradaman I with supporting the cultural arts and Sanskrit literature and repairing the dam built by the Mauryans. This refers to the repair of Lake Sudar- shana, which was constructed by Mauryas probably to contain the floods.

Yavanesvara #

Yavanesvara was a Greek writer who translated the Yavanajataka from Greek to Sanskrit. It had influenced astrology in India. This work was done in the times of Rudradaman.

Indo-Parthian Kingdom #

Indo-parthian kingdom is also known as Gon- dopharid Dynasty. This dynasty ruled Afghanistan, Pakistan and northern India, during the 1st century AD. Parthians were some Iranian tribes and in this tribe, the kings assumed the title Gondophares.

Gondophares-I seems to be the first rulers. Since the Parthians lived with Scythians for quite a long time, the features on coins mix up a lot. After the Gondophares, the Indo-Parthian rule in India ended and soon Kushanas overpowered them.

THE KUSHANA EMPIRE #

Kushana Polity #

As per the Chinese sources, the Kushanas (men- tioned in Chinese texts as Guishuang) were one of the five tribes of Yueh-Chi or Yuezhi. Kushanas were also known as Tocharians. They were nomadic tribes and easternmost speakers of the Indo- Euro- peans Languages which were called “Tocharian languages”. Their origin is connected to China and Central Asia. The modern Xiniang and Gansu of China are places where these tribes thrived before 2nd century AD. Xiongnu drove out them in around 170 BC. The Construction of the Chinese wall was a big factor of their moving away from the Chinese regions and they moved towards west and south.

Kujula Kadphises (AD 30-AD 80) #

Kujula Kadphises was the first Yueh Chi chief who crossed the Hindukush Mountains and laid down the foundation of the Kushana Empire. He established himself in Kabul and Kashmir and is credited for defeat of Last Greek Kings. He adopted the epithet of Dharma-thida. Another epithet adopted by Kujala Kadphises was Sachdharmathida, which is coterminous with Satya Dharma Sthitha. Both of the above epithets show that he was interested in both Buddhism as well as Shivaite.

Vima Taktu or Sadashkana (AD 80 -AD 95) #

Vima Taktu or Sadashkana was sons of Kujula Kadphises and ruled after his father. He is consid- ered to be the predecessor of Vima Kadphises as well as Kanishka-I. He is credited for expansion of Kushana Power into the North West of India.

Vima Kadphises: (AD 95-AD 127) #

The Rabatak inscription mentions that Vima Kadphises was son of Vima Takto and the father of Kanishka. He was one of the most important kings of the Kushana Empire who is best known for issu- ing large number of Gold Coins. Vima Kadphises

was probably the first to introduce the Gold Coins in India in addition to the Copper and Silver coins. This testifies the prosperity of the Kushana Empire. Vima is also known to have maintained the Silk Route and trade with all sides including the China, Alexandria, and Roman Empire.

Kanishka I #

Kanishka-I was the most power ruler of the Kus- hana Empire and is known for his military prowess. His main capital was Purushpura (Peshawar) and regional capitals were Taxila (Pakistan) , Begram (Afghanistan) and Mathura (India). His date of accession is disputed. However, most sources agree that Kanishka was the founder of the Shaka Era of AD 78. This has been mentioned as Saka kala or Saka Nripa kala, probably because he was thought to be a Shaka.

Under Kanishka, Kushana Empire reached its climax and it extended from Uzbekistan, Tajikistan to Mathura and Kashmir. As per the Tibetan Sources, Kanishka is considered to have conflicted with the Pataliputra and Saket and had taken Ashvaghosa, the Buddhist Monk to Purushpura. A city kanishkpur in Kashmir is also connected to Kanishka. Kanishka conflicted with Chinese general of King Han Ho-ti, the emperor of Han Dynasty and defeated him in second attempt. He is also known to have subjugated the rulers of Khotan, Yarkand etc. and is considered to have established a great kingdom only after the Mauryas in India. He was a patron of Buddhism and convened the 4th Buddhist council in the Kun- dalvana of Kashmir in 78 AD. Vasumitra headed this council and it marked the collection of Buddhist texts and engraving of the commentaries on Copper sheets.

Some scholars are of the view that the Abhidhama Mahavishasa was prepared in the fourth Buddhist council. Some of the scholars in the Court of Kanishka were Parsva, Vasumitra, Asvaghosa, Nagarjuna, Charaka and Mathara. Charaka has been called the Court Physician of Kanishka, though it is disputed. Sushruta who wrote Sushruta Samhita has also been connected to Kanishka. We know Sushruta, who had written Sushruta Samhita and Charak who had written Charak Samhita. However, both of them were from the Kushan period, earlier

than the Guptas. During Kanishka’s time, Buddhism got divided between the Hinayana and Mahayana.

Vâsishka #

Kanishka-I was succeeded by Vâsishka, who had a short reign who is identified with the Vaskushana, Vajheska, Jushka in difefrent sources. Jushkapura near modern Zukar was a city founded by him. Kan- ishka II was a successor of Vâsishka and is known to have assumed the title of Kaisar.

THE KUSHANA ART #

The Kings of the Kushana Empire had assumed eloquent titles such as Maharaj, Rajatiraj (King of Kings) etc. One of the successors of Kanishka was Vasudeva who is considered to be a Shiva worship- per and the figures of Shiva is found on his coins had assumed the title Shaono Shao Vasudeo Kushano. These titles were adopted from their predecessors Shakas and appeared later in coins of all Kushana Kings and inscriptions.

Kushana Art #

The first Buddha image appeared more or less simultaneously in Mathura and Gandhara regions in the first century C.E. under the Kushan political hegemony, a flurry of images appeared during the reign of Kanisha. Kushanas are considered to be the great patrons of art. Two schools, viz. Mathura School of Art and Gandhara School of Art flourished in the Kushana Era.Kushana had a cultural influence of the Hellenistic Greeks and this impact is seen these schools of arts as well.

Mathura School of Art #

Artisans from Mathura continued the Mauryan sculptural forms of the yaksa and yaksi—male and female, respectively, fertility spirits. The block like compactness and smooth close-fitting robe, almost entirely devoid of folds, are replicated in the earliest standing Buddha image that belongs to the Mathura school. Its worth note that the first Mathuran image makers, never intended to sculpt an anatomically correct human Buddha. Their images were a com- posite of 32 major and 80 minor laksana, or marks. Later, the Human Buddha images evolved associated with manly beauty and heroic ideals. Both sitting and standing posture of Buddha’s statues were

carved out in the Mathura school. The presences of the two attendants by the side of Buddha who hold Chanwars is a feature of the Mathura school and this figure has been later inspired the images of Indian Deities. The sitting Buddha of Mathura School is in padmasana and soles of the feet have been decorated with Tri ratna and Dharmachakra signs.

Mathura School of art is purely indigenous style. Spotted red sandstone has been used in this school. In these sculptures, Buddha has depicted as Human and the main theme was Buddha and Bodhisattavas. The Mathura School of Art, noted for its vitality and assimilative character, was a result of the reli- gious zeal of Brahmanism, Jainism and Buddhism. Mathura art, however, reached its peak during the Gupta period (AD 325 to 600).

The Jina Image and Indigenous style of Buddhas image was a remarkable features of Mathura art. The Sarvatobhadrika image of 4 jain Jinas standing back to back belongs to the Mathura school. The Standing Buddhas of the Sravasthi Sarnath and Kausambhi belong to the Mathura School.

Gandhara School of Art #

The Gandharan Buddha image was inspired by Hellenistic realism, tempered by Persian, Scythian, and Parthian models. Sculptors constructed Buddhist images with anatomical accuracy, spatial depth, and foreshortening. In this art, Buddha’s curls were altered into wavy hair. The Buddha of Gandhar art is sometimes very thin, which is opposite in Mathura art. It looks like the Mathura, Gandhara arts cross-fertilized in due course of time, and the bulky Mathura Buddha gradually gave way to the slender elegance of the Gandharan image. The result of this synthesis ennobled, refined, and purified the Buddha image that appeared in the Gupta period. This Gupta style became the model for Southeast Asian Buddha images. Gandhara School was based on Greco-Roman norms encapsulating foreign techniques and an alien spirit. It is also known as Greco-Buddhist School of art. The foreign influence is evident from the sculptures of Buddha in which they bear resemblance to the Greek sculptures. Grey sandstone (Blue-grey Mica schist to be precise) is used in Gandhara School of Art. The Bamyan Buddha of Afghanistan were the example of the Gandhara

School. The other materials used were Mud, Lime, Stucco. However, Marble was not used in Gandhara art. Terracotta was used rarely. Bimaran Casket has yielded the earliest specimen of the Gandhara Art.

The Mudras of Buddha #

The Buddha later evolved in various themes. One important theme is the Thai culture’s Sukhotai period Buddha (c. 1240–1438). The Sukhotai-style image is known for Thailand’s two most known styles viz. Maravijay or Bhumisparsha Mudra and Abhayamudra. In the maravijaya seated posture where the Buddha extends his right hand to touch the earth—a gesture known as bhumisparsa-mudra signifying the defeat of Mara, lord of darkness, and the walking image with the abhaya-mudra (gesture of fearlessness and reassurance). In all the Buddha depicted in the Gandhara Art is shown making four types of hand gestures and this is a remarkable feature in this art. The gestures are as follows:

• Abahayamudra : Don’t fear.
• Dhyanamudra : meditation.
• Dharmachakramudra: a preaching mudra.
• Bhumisparshamudra: Touching the earth.

Jalalabad, Hadda, Bamayan, bagram & Taxila are the main centers where art pieces of Gandhara School have been found. Both Shakas and Kus- hanas were patrons of Gandhara School. The head of the Buddha matched very much with Greek God Apollo.

Amravati School of Art #

The third type of sculpture art that Flourished during the Kushana time was Amaravati School of art in the Andhra Pradesh. White Marble was used in this art and the themes were Buddha’s life and Jatakas tales. The curly hairs of Buddha is a feature that is influenced by the Greeks. In this school, the Kings, Princes, Palaces etc. have got prominence.

Kushana Empire: Important Observations #

• The central Asian Tribes introduced the Cap, Boot and helmet in India.
• Kushanas (Yueh Chi Tribe) is considered to have conducted the Horse trade by sea with the Koying kingdom of modern Malaysia.

• The Kushanas issued largest number of cop- per coins.
• Charsada and Taxila were the karvan cities in Post Maurya Era.
• Asvaghosa was the first Dramatist who used Sanskrit in composing the plays.
• Sindoor (Vermillion) and Bamboo was intro- duced in India by Chinese traders.
• India was known as Shen-tu in the early Chinese texts.
• The works of Ashvaghosa were Buddhacha-

rita, Mahalankara, Saundarananda kavya (Saudarananda), Chandistrotra, Vajrasuchi.

• Sun God has been depicted on the coins of Kanishka-1 and Vâsishka.
• Kujala Kadphises and Kanishka-I adopted and patronized the Buddhism, but Vima Kadphises adopted Shaivism and was a Shiva Devotee.
• The 4 important schools of Jainism viz. Kot- taka, Varana, Aryayudikiya and vesavadiya have been mentioned in the Epigraphic Records of the Kushana Period.