The Empires of South India

INTRODUCTION #

The history of the South India is represented by the Sangam literature and its associated legends. Its history is marked by numerous great rulers of different dynasties, who were continuously engaged in internicine wars for territorial gains and economic profit, of course their hunger and quest for glory. These kingdoms especially the cholas were great empire builders and a Naval might of unparralled standing. Almost all the kingdoms were semi con- trolled, prosperous and great temple builders. Their continuous welfare also led to their subsequent weakening and destruction by the onslaught of the forces of the Delhi Sultanate by 14th century A.D.

The ancient tradition recognizes three Kingdoms of South India viz. Pandyas, Chola and Chera. Apart from that one more, Pallava rose to power (2nd cen- tury AD and later). Out of these the Pandyas kingdom occupied the extremity of the Southern Peninsula, south of Pudukottai, Chola Kingdom extended northwards to Nellore and Chera Kingdom laid to the west which mainly included Malabar Coast. We know from the history of Mauryas that Chola and Pandyas realms were well known to Ashoka, but as far as Chera is concerned, Ashoka specifies two kingdoms viz. Keralaputra and Satyaputra. Since races that spoke Dravidian language occupied all the kingdoms of South, they are generally known as Dravidians.

During the Vedic Civilization, this region was not penetrated by any of the Aryan languages and these kingdoms completely secluded from the Northern India. This region was in touch with the outer world only through the medium of maritime commerce and these Kingdoms were extremely suc-

cessful in the maritime trade. The ancient political history of Southern India is irretrievably lost and the sources to trace the development of a very high degree of civilization achieved by the Dravidians are scant. It is not possible to define when and how the Aryans penetrated the Southern countries. However, most historians take 500 BC as the mean date of Aryan penetration to the Southern India. We know from the Maurya History, that Ashoka had introduced Buddhism in South and his son Mahinda had built a monastery in the Chola Country, still it is impossible to define whether, Ashoka and Mahinda saw any Brahmincal influence on those people.

Jainism also had found a great favour in those countries. The history corroborated as well as doc- umented of the Southern empires begins with the Maurya period, though the earliest Dynastic annals are available of the Pallavas beginning with 2nd century AD. However, Pallavas are not included in the three kingdoms of south mainly because of the reason that this dynasty was an intrusive foreign and Non-Dravidian race.

THE SANGAM LITERATURE #

Tamilkam and the Sangam Age #

Tamil is the oldest among the spoken literary languages of South India. The development of Tamil was faster than Malayalam and it had therefore become a common language for intellectual expres- sion. In Chera Kingdom, the prevalent language was Malayalam, which developed later.

Tamilkam, Tamilgam, Tamilham or Tamizhakam refers to the Tamil realm or the ancient Tamil Country. This refers to the territories under today’s Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Lakshadweep, Pondicherry,

South Andhra Pradesh, parts of southern Karnataka and Maldives.

After the Vedic periods, this region saw emer- gence of clearly identifiable social formation. We know about these from the Ashokan Inscriptions as well as Indica of Megasthenes. During the 3rd cen- tury BC to 3rd century AD, earliest extant (existing today) works of Tamil Literature was created and which is known as Sangam Literature. The period from the 3rd century BC to 3rd Century AD is named after the Tamil Sangams as Sangam period. Sangam refers to the assemblies or confluence.

Iraiyanar Akapporul and Sangam legend #

Iraiyanar Akapporul, which is also known as “Iraiyanar’s writing on love”, is a work of Tamil literature which dates back to around 5-8th centuries AD. This work has 60 Nrupas or verses. Iraiyanar Akapporul is the oldest work, which gives reference to the Sangam Legend and gives the first mention of the Sangam Period. This reference is in a commen- tary by Nakkirar which describes 3 Sangams which span in thousands of years. As per this legend:

First Sangam (Mudharchangam) was held at Madurai and was submerged under the sea. It lasted for 4400 years and had 549 members and 4449 poets. This includes authors like Hindu gods such as Siva, Kubera and Murugan. First Sangam was presided by Rishi Agasyta and was patronized by 89 Pandya Kings.

The second Sangam (Idaichangam) is described to have convened in Kapatapuram which lasted for 3700 years and had 59 members and 3700 poets. This also submerged under sea. Second Sangam was presided by Tolakappiyar and was presided by 59 kings.

The third Sangam (Kadaichamgam) was held in Madurai and lasted 1850 years. It had 49 members and 449 poets. Third Sangam was presided by Nak- kirar and was presided by 49 Patron Kings.

The legend provided by Iraiyanar Akapporul says that 8598 poets contributed to these Sangams and all of them were patronized by 197 Pandya Kings and they lasted for 9990 years. The infor- mation is exaggerated and unrealistic and is now rejected by the Scholars. This reference has only of indicative importance.

SANGAM LITERATURE #

The scientific analysis of the literature says that this work was composed in 120-150 years and most of the literature was composed from 100 AD to 250 AD. There are 2289 poems available under Sangam Literature now, many of them are very short having only 3-5 verses. 102 of them are anonymous. The number of poets estimated is 473.

Earliest Extant Tamil Work: Tolkâppiyam #

Tolkâppiyam is a work of Tamil Grammar, which is said to be the earliest extant work of Tamil Literature. There are three books in Tolkâppiyam viz. Ezhuttadikaram, Solladikaram and Poruladikaram, and each of them are composed of nine chapters. This work has divided the Tamil Language into two types viz. Sentamil (Classical Tamil) and Kotunta- mil (Spoken Tamil). Sentamil is used in almost all literary works of the Tamil Language.

Earliest Tamil Work: Agattiyam #

However, the first work on Tamil Grammar, which is not extant and is lost irretrievably, is Agattiyam. Rishi Agastya wrote it. Tolakappiar who wrote the above-mentioned Tolkâppiyam is said to be a disciple of Rishi Agastya. As per the Tamil tra- ditions, Rishi Agasyta invented the Tamil Language and brought its syntax from the lord Shiva.

Themes of Sangam Literature #

On the basis of interpretation and context, the Sangam literature can be described into two types viz. Agam (inner) and Puram (outer). The topics of Agam are related to personal and human aspects such as love and sexual things. The topics of Puram are related to human experiences and emotions such as Heroism, Valor, Ethics and Philanthropy. The poems have also been classified on nature themes which are known as Thinai. The themes are as follows:

• Kurinji (Mountainous Theme).
• Mullai (Forests Theme).
• Marutham (Agricultural Land Theme).
• Neithal (Coastal Theme).
• Paalai (Desert Theme).

The literature was lost and forgotten. The Tamil Scholars S V Damodaram Pillai and U V Swami-

tha Iyer brought it into light. They printed and published different works such as Tholkappiyam, Nachinarkiniyar urai, Tholkappiyam Senavariyar urai, Manimekalai, Cilappatikaram, Pattupattu, and Purananuru in different parts of the 19th century, all with commentaries.

Classification of Sangam Literature #

Broadly, we can divide the Sangam literature in 2 parts viz. Patinenmelkanakku and Patinenmel- kanakku. Out of them, the Patinenmçlkanakku refers to the oldest surviving Tamil Poetry of the Sangam Age, dating back to 200 BC to 100 BC while the Pat- inenkîlkanakku refers to the collection of 18 poetic works, which belongs to Post Sangam period, and date back to 100 AD to 500 AD. This classification has been further summarized as follows.

Patinenmelkanakku #

This is the collection of the Sangam Period works. Ettutokai is a large volume of the poems which is consisting of more than 2000 poems. These works, which are called “The Eight Anthologies”, are on deferent themes such as Narrinai on love, Kuruntokai on love, Aiankurunuru on erotic love etc. So most works of Ettukottai are of Agam style. Most works of Pattuppâttu are of Puram context and they have works on seasons and picturesque nature of Tamil Country. They are based upon the themes of the nature.

Patinenkîlkanakku #

Patinenkîlkanakku is the post Sangam work that is of Agam as well as Puram context. Some impor- tant points of some of these works is as follows:

Naaladiyar was composed by Jain monks and the theme is the transient nature of life and youth. It was work of Nalatiyar.

Nanmanikkatiga is the collection of 100 songs of Vilambi Naganaar and deals conditions / emotions of 4 types of people who cannot sleep in the night and they are thief, lovelorn, after money, and worrying about losing money.

Inna Narpathu describes the things which should be avoided by the people. It deals with the things that bring unhappiness such as beautiful but disloyal wife, wealth of a miser, life under a tyrant and a beautiful flower without fragrance.

Iniyavai Narpathu deals with the things which should not be avoided by a person and seek even in adverse situations such as learning even by begging, advice of learned persons, healthy children, and not coveting other’s spouse.

Kalavazhi Narpathu deals with war and politics. Ainthinai Aimpathu deals with human emotions,

love, separation, lovers’ quarrels.

Thinaimozhi Aimpathu also deals with the Agam subjects such as love, seperation, lover fights etc.

Same is with Ainthinai Ezhupathu.

Same is with Thinaimalai Nurru Aimpathu. Thirukkural is the first work in all of the Dra-

vidian literature which deals with the ethics. It was authored by Thiruvalluvar. It is also known as Kural and is a collection of 1330 couplets.

Thirikatukam deals with herbal medicines.

Acharakkovai deals with the personal behavior and correct methods to follow.

Pazhamozhi Nanuru deals with the character of the person.

Siruppanchamulam deals with the nature and combines the benevolent humans with benevolent neighbors.

Muthumozhikkanch deals with the right behav- ior and chastity.

Elathi deals with human qualities and also nar- rates some herbal medicines.

Kainnilai deals with the agam concepts.

Impact of Sanskrit on Tamil Literature #

The Tamil language and literature did not flourish in isolation and was influenced by Sanskrit. The Aryans had penetrated the whole of the Tamil Land by 6th century AD and Post Sangam literature contains some traces of Aryan Culture. Influence of Sanskrit is more on the five epics of Tamil Literature, which were written between 1st century AD to 9th century AD. Out of them Silappatikaram, which was written by Ilango Adigal, brother of Senguvattan, a Chera King and who was a Jain monk is a highly regarded epic. The other four epics are

• Manimegalai which is a Buddhist Religious Work.

• Civaka Chintamani which is a Jain Religious work.
• Valayapathi which is also a Jain work of 9th Century.
• Kundalkesi which is a Buddhist work of 5th century by Nagasena.

THE PANDYA KINGDOM #

Pandya Kingdom refers to the Pandyas of Mahabharata Period about whom, we only know from the traditional legends and epics. Of this ancient Pandya Kingdom was a king known as Sarangdh- waj, had taken part in the epic war of Mahabharata. This Pandya Kingdom and its landmarks such as Rishabha Mountain, Agastya and Varuna Tirthas, Kumari, Thamiraparni, Gokarni etc. find their place in Mahabharata. The other references, which may or may not be historically correct, link them with the events of Mahabharata. In Mahabharata, the Pandya Kings were allies of the Pandavas.

However, the Pandya Empire was a dynasty, which finds its place in Sangam literature, and later sources show their rule till 15th century AD. The territory was also known as Pandya Country.

The Pandya kings adopted the fish or a pair of Fishes as their family crest.

Extent of Pandya Empire #

The Pandya country, as per the traditions extended from the Podukottai district to Kanyaku- mari in south and Achankovil River in Kerala (west) to River Vegai (Madurai) in East. The kingdom was ordinarily divided into 5 principalities which were known as “Five Pandyas”. The early days capital of Pandyas is Korkai.

Capitals and Main Cities #

Korkai, which is now an insignificant village in Tamil Nadu, was the commercial capital and important port of the Pandya Kingdom. Korkai has been a cradle of South Indian Civilization and as per traditions, it is considered the home of three brothers who were supposed to have founded the Pandya, Chera and Chola Kingdoms.

Korkai was center of Pearl trade and this trade was the chief source of wealth for the Pandya Kings. Today, Korkai is located 6 kilometers from the

coast. The shift is because of the silting up of the delta, which rendered Korkai inaccessible to ships. After Korkai, the commercial capital of the Pandyas was shifted to a new port of at a town Old Kayal, which were about one and half kilometers from the mouth of river Tambraparni and located in present Tinnevelly district.

Visit of Marcopolo #

Marcopolo landed in Pandya Empire (at Kayal) in 13th century and impressed by the wealth and magnificence of the King, Prince as well as peo- ple, tagged it as the richest kingdom in existence. However, the same silting process in 14th century caused the abandonment of the Kayal too, and the Portuguese were compelled later to shift their busi- ness to a port of Tuticorin, which was free from silting of Delta. The capital of Pandyas was later shifted to Madura (now Madurai).

Madura, the Later Capital of Pandyas #

Madura, the later capital of Pandyas was the central seat of Tamil Sangam literature. Today, Madurai is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities. Madura was located on the banks of River Vaigai in Tamil Nadu. As early as 3rd Century BC, Megasthenes visited Madurai and quoted this city as “Methora” in his document Indica. In Sangam literature, Madura finds special place in Mathuraik- kanci, a Pathinenmaelkanakku anthology. This work praises a Pandya King Nedunchezhiyan. Similarly Madura has been described by Pliny, Ptolemy and Strabo too.

POLITICAL HISTORY OF PANDYAS #

No continuous history of the Pandya Kings prior to 12th century AD has been clearly writ- ten. In Maurya Period, the Pandya Kingdom was independent. One of the Pandya Kings had sent an embassy to Augustus Caesar. Pandya Kingdom was well known to Greeks and Romans for its pearl trade. Many Roman coins have been found on many places in Pandya Empire, which shows an existence of a well-developed trade between the Romans and Pandyas in the early centuries AD.

First Pandya Empire #

Post Sangam period, the first Pandyan empire was established by a King named Kadungon, who

defeated Kalabras in 6th century AD. The successors of Kadungon indulged in fighting with the nearby Chera and Chola Kings. Huen Tsang, who visited in 6th century AD travelled up to Kanchi which was southernmost point of his itinerary. He has mentioned the people of this area as Malakottai. Malakottai may refer to the Pandyan kingdom. Huen Tsang mentions that the people in this reason little cared for learning; there were Buddhist Monasteries, which were almost in ruins.

The last Pandya King of this first Pandyan Empire was Maravarman Rajasimha II who ruled from 900-920 AD. He was a contemporary of the Chola King Parantaka Chola I, who overran his kingdom and captured Madura. Parantaka Chola-I after this victory, earned the title of Maduraikonda. Rajasimha II fled to Ceylon after this defeat and returned to Kerala, where he lived in low profile under a Chera King.

The great Rajaraja Chola-I in 1000 AD, reduced the Pandya Empire, akin to the other kingdoms of South, to a tributary and after that, it continued for a century or even long under the Cholas. In the turn of the 13th century, a vassal of Chola Empire named Jatavarman Kulasekaran I ascended to the Madura Throne in 1290, turned rebel to Cholas. The Cholas invaded him and sacked Madurai. Jatavar- man Kulasekaran I surrendered to the Chola king Kulothunga with wife and son and acknowledging his surrender, he was returned his capital. But during this, the ancient coronation hall of Pandyas in Madurai was destroyed and it also destroyed the records if any of the previous Pandyas. This was the reason that the history of Pandyas lost in obscurity.

Sundara Pandyan #

To take revenge of this assault, younger brother of Kulasekaran, named Maravarman Sundara Pan- dyan, who came into power in 1216 AD, invaded the Chola Kingdom. The armies of Sundara Pandyan sacked the cities of Thanjaur and Uraiyur of Chola Kings and drove the Chola kings out in exile. His armies marched up to Chidambaram and in memory of this victory, Sundar Pandyan conducted a Thu- labaram at the Chidambaram temple and donated wealth equal to his weight. But, victory of Sundar Pandyan over Cholas was followed by a march of the Hoyasala army towards Sri Rangapattam. King-

dom of the Cholas was returned after interference of Hoyasala king Veera Ballala III, but now Cholas accepted suzerainty of the Sundar Pandyan. This was the revival of second Pandyan Empire.

Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan #

After Maravarman Sundara Pandyan, we know about his successor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (1251-61). He was a mighty conqueror who invaded Ceylon and carried off the great booty. The famous tooth relic of Buddha was also included in this booty. With this victory Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan was called “Second Rama” for plundering the Island of Sri Lanka. He covered the Srirangam temple with Gold. He also conflicted with the Kakatiya Kings of Warangal.

Invasion of Malik Kafur #

Early in the 14th century, a dispute arose about the succession of the Pandya throne and one of the claimants appealed to the Sultan of Delhi, Alauddin Khilji for help. This probably resulted in an inva- sion by the Sultan’s forces in 1310 under Malik Kafur. Malik Kafur sacked, looted Madura and marched up to Rameshwaram, where he erected a mosque. After that invasion, the Pandya kings ruled sporadically at undefined territories and a sort of confusion was there. Malik Kafur was followed by two other expeditions from the Delhi Sultanate in 1314 AD led by Khusrav Khan and in 1323 AD by Ulugh Khan. What happened to Pandyas after that, very little is known. Later Muhammad Bin Tughlaq created a southern province and placed Sayyid Jalal-ud-Din Ahsan as its governor. In 1333 AD Sayyid declared his independence and created Madurai Sultanate. Madurai Sultanate was replaced by the Nayak governors, who kept on ruling untill arrival of the British.

THE CHERA KINGDOM #

Not many details are available about the pre-Christian era history of the Chera, Keralaputra and Satyaputra.

Satyaputras #

The first historical evidence about Kerala is found in the inscriptions of Ashoka who cited four kingdoms viz. Choda (Chola), Pada, (Pandya), Ketala Puto (Keralaputra), Satiya Puto (Satyapu-

tra) in the south of his empire. Keralaputra and Satyaputra is mentioned in the Rock Edict II and Girnar Inscription.However, it referred to which territory and which dynasty was mostly unknown. The historians have identified it with the portions of the Malaya Mountains of the Western Ghats and certain lowlands around those areas. Satyaputra are mentioned in the Puranas and Tamil Literature as well. In the Ashoka’s edicts, they find their place with Cholas, Pandyas and Keralaputra.

This means that Satyaputra had rose to promi- nent power by the time of Ashoka. However, after that, there are not many details available about this dynasty.

Kerala #

The word “Kerala” is of Prakrit origin and is not available in Sangam texts. The etymological identity of Kerala and Chera link them but it was not certain that whether the present Kerala was the Chera Kingdom.

However, Pandyas, Cheras and the Cholas were mentioned in surviving Tamil Literature (comprising of Chilappatikaram, Tirukkural etc), complementing their mention in the existing Sanskrit Literature viz. Puranas, Vedas, Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Few historians now believe that ancient Chera Kingdom included the today’s Kerala but separated in 389 AD and the Chera Realm was restricted to Tamilnadu (around Coimbatore) and southern parts of Karnataka.

Insignia of Cheras: Bow and Arrow #

The Chera Kings adopted the “Bow and arrow” as a crest or cognizance of their dynasty. They released a few coins, which were characterized by a bow device engraved on them. Though the authentic list of the Rajas of Travancore and that of Cochin is from beginning of 13th century & 15th century onwards, yet the Chera Dynasty is considered to be the two dynasties that ruled in two different eras. The First Chera dynasty ruled from 300 BC to 300 AD in the Sangam Era and another dynasty from the 9th century AD onwards. The only source of knowledge of the first Chera dynasty is Sangam Text. Cheras ruled in North Travancore, Cochin and Southern Malabar. Capital of the early Cheras was Vanchi Muthur in Kizhanthur-Kandallur and Karur

Vanchi and the later Cheras was Mahodayapuram, Kulashekarapuram.

First Cheras: Uthiyan Cheralathan #

First recorded King of the Cheras is Uthiyan Cheralathan, who ruled anytime between 1st to 3rd century AD. He fought numerous battles and in one such battle with Cholas, he was defeated and due to humiliation, he committed suicide that was a common practice those days. The second king of the Chera Dynasty was Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral- atan, who died in a battle with Chola Kings. The next important ruler was Senguttuvan, who is hero of a famous Tamil Epic Silapathikaram. Senguttuvan is best known for sending the first embassy to China from South India. His capital was Karur. The navy of Senguvattan was the best navy in the world.

Second Cheras (Later Cheras) #

Kulashekhara Alwar, a Tamil King in 800 AD, founded the second Chera Dynasty. He had united the parts of the Modern Kerala and ruled from his capital Mahodayapuram that is today’s Kodungallur. Kulashekhara wrote Perumal thirumozhi, one of the most celebrated devotional works of the Tamil Bhakti cult. He renounced the crown to become a Vishnavite saint and lived in Srirangam.

After Kulashekhara Alwar, all kings are insig- nificant and some of them became saints. The last Chera King was Rama Varma Kulashekhara who ruled from 1090 to 1102 AD. His contemporary Chola ruler was Kulothunga Chola-I with whom he fought a war. His life is shrouded in mystery as after this war, he is supposed to have left India and embraced Islam. This ended the Chera dynasty and the rulers were confined to the area around Travancore.

THE CHOLA EMPIRE #

As per the traditions, the Chola Country or Cholamandalam was the area bound on the North by the Pennar, South by the Vellaru River, at Eastern Coast of Bay of Bengal from Nellore and Pudukottai to west until Coorg. Its most ancient capital was Uraiyur, near the Trichurapalli in Tamil Nadu. Therefore, the heartland was the fertile valley of the river Cauvery. The Chola dynasty is one of the longest ruling dynasties of South India, and it

existed from 300 BC until late 13th century AD, though the territorial limits kept varying from time to time. This period of around 1500 years can be divided into 4 parts as follows:

Early Cholas: The Early Cholas refer to the Chola Kingdom of the Sangam Age from 300 BC to 200 AD. Most of the information about this, we have in the form of Sangam Literature, legends and religious texts of Buddhism and Jainism.

Dark Period: After this early Chola Kingdom fell, there is a dark period, in which they existed but insignificantly.

Medieval Cholas: The rise of the medieval Cholas is from 850 AD when Vijayalaya Chola of Thanjaur re-established the Chola Power in South India. These Chola Kings ruled till 1070 AD and the Cholamandalam flourished.

Later Cholas: From 1070 AD till 1279 AD, is the period assigned to the later Cholas. During this time, the Chola Empire reached its Zenith and became the “Most Powerful Country” of the world. These Cholas colonized the South East Asian Coun- tries and had the most powerful army and navy of the world at that time.

EARLY CHOLAS #

Not much authentic information is available about the Early Chola Kingdom. The main source of its knowledge is the Sangam Literature. The other sources are Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, which is a work of an anonymous merchant of Alexan- dria, works of Ptolemy, Mahavamsa- the Buddhist Text of Ceylon, Pillars of Ashoka, Hathigumpha description of Kharvela- the Kalinga King and other numerous stone inscriptions found at various parts in the Southern Peninsula.

Karikala Chola #

The most significant Early Chola ruler is Karikala Chola, who ruled around 270 BC and is mentioned in the Sangam Literature. The meaning of his name “Kari + Kalan” refers to “Slayer of Elephants” but also means “the one with burnt limbs”. This indicates a fire accident in his early age, which left his legs charred. One of the Sangam Poems testifies this. Karikala Chola is best known for winning the famous “Battle of Venni” in which

both the Pandyas and Cheras were crushed by him. The current location of Venni is near Thanjaur. The “Battle of Venni” was a turning point in his career and he was established as a firm power in the South. Some legends say that he won the whole of Ceylon Kingdom, after the Battle of Venni. World’s earliest water-regulator structure in stone at Kallanai (Grand Anicut) on River Cauvery was built by Karikala Chola. It was constructed mainly to divert the water from Cauvery River for irrigation. This dam stands as a huge mass of 329 meters (1,080 feet) long and 20 meters (60 feet) wide, across the main stream of the Cauvery and is a major tourist attraction today.

MEDIEVAL CHOLAS #

From the Third century AD to 9th Century AD is the interregnum in the Chola History. The Chola hegemony over Pandyas and Cheras was lost after the close of the Sangam Era and south India was disturbed by the predatory activities of the Kala- bhras. Kalabras was probably a tribal clan from the Deccan and they did not speak Tamil. They might be the ascendants of the Satavahana, whose empire had demised by early 3rd century AD. Kalabhras were patrons of Buddhism and also Jainism. The demise of the Satavahana dynasty in Deccan created a chaos and out of this chaos the Kalabhras tried to create a niche for themselves. They invaded the southern Tamil countries which were not in a position to counter attack. The Pallavas drove out the Kalabhras.

Later, most of the Chola territories were lost to Pandyas and Pallavas. In the medieval period, Chalukyas rose to power. The Cholas and Chalukyas kept fighting over control on Vengi Kingdom for a longer period of time.

Vijayalaya Chola #

The first medieval Chola ruler was Vijayalaya who in 848 AD re-established the Chola rule. His capital was Thanjaur. The question, whether Vijay- alaya was from the same Chola Dynasty, is not resolved. Vijayalaya was able to get benefit from the Pandya-Pallava rivalry. He perhaps captured Thanjaur in 848 AD by removing the Mutharaiyars, a family that belonged to the Pandya Clan or was a feudatory of Pandyas. Vijayalaya was a Pallava feudatory.  Because  of  this  victory,  the  Cholas

became powerful and Vijayalaya wiped out both the Pandyas and Pallavas from the Thanjaur area. Vijayalaya renovated Thanjaur and built solesvara temple at Padukottai.

The rise of the Chola power miffed both the Pallavas and Pandyas. The Pandya King Varagu- navarman II and Pallava King Nandivarman III became allies to block the rising Chola Power. Nadivarman III died in 869 AD and a dispute arose between his son Nripatunga and Aparajita Pallava, stepbrother of Nriptunga. Aparajita came in the side of Cholas. The armies of Chola and the Pandya met at Sripurambiyam, near Kumbakonam. Aditya Chola I led the Cholas.

Aditya Chola I #

Aditya Chola I was son of Vijayalaya and he succeeded him after his death. At Sripurambiyam, he led the Chola army, as his father was ailing with age related problems. In this war, he defeated the Pandya forces. The victory was of Aparajita, but Aditya Chola reaped the real benefit. A few years later Aditya Chola I attacked the Pallavas and killed Aparajita. This was the end of Pallava Dynasty and whole territory of the Pallavas (Capital : Kanchi) was annexed to the Chola Kingdom. Thus the power of Cholas was further consolidated by Aditya Chola I.

He was a great Shiva devotee and built a number of Shiva Temples on the banks of river Cauvery. With Cheras he had friendly relations. He died in 907 AD and his son Parantaka Chola I succeeded him.

Parantaka Chola I #

The foundation of the Chola Kingdom by Vijay- alaya and Aditya Chola-I was further enhanced by Parantaka Chola I. His reign was from 907 AD to 955 AD. Just three years of ascending to the throne, he attacked the Pandyas and captured Madura, and assumed the title Madurakonda. The Pandya King was Maravarman Rajsimha II. Maravarman Rajsimha II prayed the King of Ceylon for help, who sent an army for aid to Maravarman Rajsimha II. However, Parantaka Chola defeated the combined army badly. Maravarman Rajsimha II fled to Ceylon and whole of Madura and Pandya Territory was merged in Chola kingdom. This victory earned him the title of Maduraiyum Elamum Konda Parakesarivarman (The

conqueror of Madura and Ceylon). Apart from this major war, Parantaka-I also led some other minor wars. His 48 years reign was otherwise peaceful and prosperous.

When he died in 955 AD, his second son Gandaraditya Chola succeeded him. This is because, Rajaditya, the son and successor of Parantaka, was killed in battle with Krishnaraja I, the Rashtrakuta king, in 949 A. D.

Gandaraditya Chola was insignificant ruler and 30 years from 955 AD i.e. 985 AD, the Chola Coun- try was ruled by 5 Chola princes, all insignificant. Finally, in 985 AD Rajaraja Chola I ascended the Throne.

Rajaraja Chola I #

The birth name of Rajaraja Chola-I was Arul- mozhi varman. He was also known as Arunmozhi udayar Periya Udayar. The 30 year period of the Dynastic intrigue was put to an end by Rajaraja Chola I. He was such an able King that for the period of next 20 years, he achieved so many victories that when he died in 1014 AD, he was beyond dispute the lord paramount of Southern India. His territory included today’s whole of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, parts of Andhra Pradesh, parts of Orissa, whole of Kerala and Sri Lanka.

The first 8 years of his reign were utilized by Rajaraja Chola I for organizing and augmenting his army. Since ages, the Pandyas, Cheras and Sinhala were against the Cholas. The first attack was on Chera King Bhaskara Ravi Varman Thiruvadi and in this campaign in Kerala, Rajaraja I destroyed a fleet in the port of Kandalur. However, some sources say that the port was under Pandyas. This conquest led him to assume the title “Mummudi Chola” (the wearer of three crowns Chera, Chola and Pandya).

In Ceylon, Mahinda V was the King. In 991 AD, the army of Mahinda V mutinied against him and Mahinda fled to take refuge in Southern region of the Island. This was an opportunity used by Rajaraja I, who attacked Ceylon in 993 AD. The army of Rajaraja I crossed the ocean by ships, burnt Ceylon and destroyed Anuradhapura, the capital of the Sin- hala kings of Ceylon. Rajaraja could win half of (northern) island of Sri Lanka and his son Rajendra Chola-I won rests of the territories in the island.

In 998-999 AD, he captured parts of modern Karnataka from the Ganga Kings. By the turn of the millennium, Western Chalukyan Dynasty had rose to prominent power in North of Cholas.Rajaraja I was victorious against the Western Chalukyan King Satyasraya, son of Tailapa II. When the war with the Western Chalukyas concluded the Tungabhadra River became the northern frontier of the Chola Kingdom. He conquered Vengi and subsequently Kalinga. The last conquest was on Maldives most probably.

The Rajrajeshwaram temple at Thanjaur, which is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site was built by Rajaraja Chola. It is known as Brihadeswarar Temple or Peruvudaiyar Kovil , devoted to lord Shiva.

The temple was built by him on a command given by his lord Shiva in dream. The temple is a testimony to the Chola Power and wealth at the time of Rajaraja Chola I. Stories of his victory have been engraved on the walls of this temple. Rajaraja Chola I was a worshipper of Shiva. But he was a liberal minded king , who endowed a Burmese Buddhist Temple (Chudamani Vihara ) at the port of Nagapatam, which survived till 19th century, when in 1867, it was pulled down and the Jesuit priests erected Christian Building over them.

Rajaraja Chola I died in 1014 AD and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola, who was declared crown prince in 1012 AD. The powerful standing army and a great navy organized under Rajaraja Chola I achieved even great successes under Rajendra Chola.

Rajendra Chola-I #

Rajendra Chola I succeeded his father Rajaraja Chola I in 1014 AD and reigned till 1044 AD. He was an able son and prince. He continued the ambi- tious career of his father and added more and more territories to the Chola Dominions. The powerful standing army and a great navy organized under Rajaraja Chola I achieved even great successes under Rajendra Chola. Rajendra Chola I was declared crown prince in 1012 AD, but he was active with his father since 1002 AD, when he conquered the Rastrakuta Country on behalf of his father. He also led a campaign against the western Chalukyan King

Satyasraya and his successor Jayasimha II crossing the Tungabhadra river and attacking them at the heart of their capital, ruining the Chalukyas. Only 4 years after he became King, in 1018 he declared his eldest son Rajadhiraja as crown prince.

Conquest of Ceylon by Rajendra Chola #

In 1018 AD, he led a campaign on Illam (Sri Lanka). The Powerful navy of Rajendra Chola I overran the Sri Lankan capital Anuradhapura. The Sinhala King Mahinda was taken prisoner and was transported to the Chola Country. He was held a prisoner for 12 years and died in captivity. The whole of Sri Lanka (Iramandalam) was conquered by Rajendra Chola-I.

Conquest of other empires #

In 1021, his turned his attention to the Western Chalukyan Empire and defeated Jayasimha II in the Battle of Maski. Jayasimha II was returned his territory and was made a tributary subordinate. He also subdued the Eastern Chalukyas. After that his forces marched to Kalinga and reached the Pala Kingdom, where they met with forces of Mahipala and defeated them. The weight of the Chola arms was felt by almost all the Northern Kingdoms in this two year campaign. Victory over the Chalukyas, Kalinga, Gangas and Palas etc. led him to assume the title “Gangaikonda”.

Naval Conquests of Rajendra Chola #

In 1025 AD, the Naval forces of Rajendra Cola I crossed the ocean and attacked the Srivijaya King- dom (Sumatra) of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman. The capital Kadaram (part of Malaya) was sacked and its king was made a prisoner. Along with Kadaram, the Sumatra and Malaiyur were attacked and sacked. Kedah in today’s Malaysia was also attacked and occupied.

Relations with China #

Cholas had good relations with the contempo- rary Chinese Kingdoms. The contemporary Chinese rulers were from the Song Dynasty who sent a mission to Chola country in 1015 AD to Rajaraja Chola I (Lo-ts’a-lo-ts’a) and again in 1033 AD to Rajendra Chola I (Shi-lo-cha Yin-to-loChu-lo Sri Raja Indra Chola). The commercial trade was exten-

sive between them, and today’s South East Asian territories might have been the midway in the trade routes , which indicate a reason of enmity between Cholas and these countries.

Gangaikonda Cholapuram #

Gangaikonda Cholapuram was constructed by Rajendra Chola I to commemorate his conquest over the Chalukyas and other feudatories, Kalinga, Gan- gas, Palas etc.   These victories led him to assume

the title Gangaikonda. Gangaikonda Cholapuram was erected as a new capital of the Cholas, which served as a Capital of the later Cholas until the Chola dynasty came to an end in 1280. It is now a small village in Tamil Nadu. There is a great Shiva Temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram. All the future princes of the Chola dynasty were coronated at the Gangaikonda Cholapuram after Rajendra Chola I. Now, only the temple at the Gangaikonda Cholapuram survives. A magnificent Royal Palace of burnt bricks was built over there, which was later turned to ruins most probably by the Pandyas. When Rajendra Chola I died in 1044 AD, the extent of the Chola Empire was the widest in the world and naval prestige was highest. The benevolent imperialism of the Cholas was maintained by his successor Rajadhiraja Chola.

Rajadhiraja Chola 1018-1059 AD #

Rajadhiraja Chola was declared crown prince / Co-regent as early as 1018 AD during time of his father Rajendra Chola I. He ruled with full regal status and was leader of the most of the military conquests of his father including that of Ceylon. He emphasized his claim to a paramount power by performing an Ashwamedha Yajna. In 1059, he was killed in the Battle of Koppam near Mysore, while fighting with the Chalukyas. He was killed on the back of the elephant and this is why he came to be known as Yanai-mel-thunjina Devar (The king who died on elephant). His life was of a true warrior.

In the Battle of Koppam, his younger brother Rajendra Chola II, declared himself Monarch and immediately took the command of the army, chang- ing the scenario and result of this important battle.

Battle of Koppam #

We have read in the Western Chalukyan King- doms that Someshwara I ascended the throne in

1042 AD, and reigned till 1068 AD. This was one of the brilliant periods for the Chalukyas of Kalyani. However, the reign of Someshwara-I was known for continuous conflicts with the Cholas. He replaced his capital from Manyakheta to Kalyani probably because of this pressure. The major conflict was over control over Vengi. Vengi kept moving in the hands of Eastern Chalukyas, Western Chalukyas, Cholas, Pandyas through the history. In 1044 Someshwara-I had launched a campaign to master Vengi, captured it and gained short term control. On this side, Chola King Rajadhiraja Chola was eager to restore Chola Power in Vengi.

Rajadhiraja Chola defeated the western Chaluk- yan forces in the Battle of Dannanda (in Guntur) and Chalukyan forces were wiped out from Vengi. The forces of Rajadhiraja Chola had been successful to sack Kollipakkai, Kampilli, Pundur, Yetagiri and the Chalukyan Capital Kalyani. But before 1050 AD, Someshwara was able to make a dramatic recovery. He was successful in driving out the Chola forces of his capital and he carried war in the heart of the Chola kingdom. In 1053-54 AD, Rajadhiraja and his younger brother Rajendra Chola II led a campaign against the Chalukyas.

The fierce battle was fought at Koppam on the river Krishna. Rajadhiraja Chola was wounded to death on the elephant and Rajendra Chola II crowned himself as next Chola Monarch. He was able to re-activate the Chola army which fought with the Chalukyas without getting demoralized. The result was that Chalukya army was defeated. But Rajendra Chola II was not able to annex any of the Chalukyan territory with this war. The disgrace of Koppam gave sleepless nights to Someshwara-I. In 1059, another battle took place at Mudakkaru. In this battle, Someshwara got defeated.

Rajendra Chola-II (1051-1063 AD) #

Rajendra Chola II had declared himself the King in the battlefield of Koppam in 1054 AD. He was declared heir apparent by his elder brother Rajadhi- raja Chola 3 years ago. He was a great patron of dance and poetry. He provided necessary support for a musical dance drama Rajarajeswara Natakam at the Brihadeshwara Temple at Thanjaur. In 1063, he was succeeded by Virarajendra Chola.

Virarajendra Chola (1063-1070 AD) #

Virarajendra Chola was a significant Chola ruler who reigned from 1063-1070 AD. He was younger brother of Rajendra Chola II and Rajadhiraja Chola. We see that in a span of around 18-20 years, there was a rapid succession in the Chola Kings as three brothers ruled one after another. This gave an oppor- tunity to Someshwara-I to launch a campaign against them. They conflicted in 1066 but the Chalukyas led by Someshwara I were again defeated.

In 1067, Someshwara wrote Virarajendra Chola to meet at a place called Kudal Sangamam for war. Virarajendra waited for him, but Someshwara-I did not turn up. Miffed by this Virarajendra overran Chalukya Kingdom and planted a pillar of victory at Tungbhadra. In 1067, he conquered Vengi. Vira- rajendra also carried out some successful conquests in Sri Lanka and Kadaram (Malaya). We know from some sources that Someshwara-I drowned himself in River Tungabhadra due to a fever. After this, there was a civil war in Western Chalukyas for succession.

After death of Someshwara I, his son Somesh- wara II succeeded him in 1068. But a dispute broke between him and his younger brother Vikramaditya

VI. Vikramaditya VI approached Virarajendra Chola and begged him to be nominated for the Chalukya Throne. Virarajendra accepted his prayer and made him heir to the Chalukya throne. Thus Vikramaditya VI became a tributary subordinate to Virarajendra Chola. Virarajendra Chola gave his daughter in mar- riage to Vikramaditya VI and this was a significant marital alliance between the Cholas and Chalukyas.

In Virarajendra Chola we find a brave, able, wise and strong King who not only maintained the status of the Cholas but also was able to increase the in Chola strength. He died in 1070 AD. In his life he patronized arts and cared for temples of all deities specially Lord Vishnu. Virarajendra Chola was succeeded by Athirajendra Chola who reigned only for few months of 1070 AD. There was a civil unrest in the Chola kingdom and he was killed in this unrest.

With the death of Athirajendra Chola, the dynasty of the Vijayalaya Chola came to an end. The next Cholas (Later Cholas) were actually a fresh blood arising out of the Chola-Chalukya marital alliances.

Trouble in Chola Kingdom #

The death of Virarajendra Chola in 1070 AD was followed by troubles in Chola Kingdom. Further, Vikramaditya VI, his son-in-law attained significant position and soon started taking the Chola alliance as a liability. When Virarajendra died, there was an uprising (probably religious) in Chola Kingdom. After hearing this, Vikramaditya VI went to the Chola Capital and destroyed the uprising. Vikrama- ditya VI remained at Gangaikonda Cholapuram for around a month and then returned to his capital. At Gangaikonda Cholapuram, he installed Athirajendra as new King. However, within a few months, Athi- rajendra was killed in a fresh outbreak of rebellion. His own people most probably killed him.

Athirajendra had no male successor. When Athirajendra died, Rajendra Chola or Rajendra Cha- lukya, who was later known as Kulotthunga Chola I, captured Chola throne. This was the beginning of a new line of Chola Kings who were offspring’s of Chola-Chalukya alliance.

Kulotthunga Chola-I (1070 – 1120 AD) #

Rajendra Chola I, the great Gangaikonda had a daughter named Ammanaga Devi. She had been given in marriage to the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi king Rajaraja Narendra. The offspring of this union was Rajendra Chola or Rajendra Chalukya who later became Kulotthunga-I. Kulotthunga literally means the “upraiser of fame of the (two) families”.

A few years of Kulotthunga Chola -I were spent in suppressing the uprisings. In Sri Lanka also, some parts had declared their independence. Vikramaditya VI did not accept the accession on Chola throne by Kulotthunga and this was a trouble to deal with.

Kulotthunga Chola I led two military cam- paigns in Kalinga and annexed some parts of the territories of Southern Kalinga into Chola Empire. The rivalry between Kulotthunga and Vikramaditya

VI let Kulotthunga assume a title “ Viruduraja Bhayankara” i.e. Frightning for the Vikramaditya, as his inscriptions say. A war was fought between the combined armies of Kulotthunga & Somesh- wara II and Vikramaditya VI. This battle ended in confusion. Under Kulotthunga, the empire remained intact except Sri Lanka. Still the boundary between the Western Chalukya and Chola was Tungabhadra

river. He was succeeded by his son Vikrama Chola in 1120 AD.

Vikrama Chola 1120-1135 AD #

As a prince, his father as Viceroy of Vengi appointed Vikrama Chola. He was recalled in 1118 AD and was declared as Coregent. He ruled with his father till Kulotthunga died in 1122 AD. The Western Chalukyas had become prominent and they annexed Vengi by attacking the Eastern Chalukyas. His period as a prince was more important for, he led the conquests to Kalinga. He was able to recover Vengi. He assumed the title of “tyagasamudra” and was a great devotee of Shiva. He was succeeded by his son Kulotthunga Chola II in 1133 AD.

Kulotthunga Chola II 1133 AD – 1150 AD #

Kulotthunga Chola II was son and successor of Vikrama Chola. There are no significant warfare in his account. He was a patron of the Chidambaram temples. His reign was generally peaceful. He was succeeded by Rajaraja Chola II in 1150 AD.

Rajaraja Chola II 1150 – 1173 AD #

Kulotthunga Chola III had made Rajaraja Chola II his heir apparent and coregent in 1146 AD. The territories remained intact, but the weakness of the Kingdom administrations had started becoming apparent in his rule. He still had full control over the Vengi, Kalinga, Pandya, Chera etc. territories and also invaded Sri Lanka, but the closing years of his reign saw a civil Unrest in the kingdom, in the former Pandya Territories. Before he died, he made Rajadhiraja Chola II as his heir appparent and coregent in 1163 AD. During his reign the Aira- vateswarar Temple at Darasuram near Kumbakonam was built. It is a world heritage site today. He made grants to the temples at Tanjore, Chidambaram, Kanchi, Srirangam, Trichy and Madurai. He was succeeded by his son Rajadhiraja Chola II.

Rajadhiraja Chola II 1166 AD -1178 AD #

Rajaraja Chola II was succeeded by Rajadhiraja Chola II, who was most probably not his son. His reign is known for further weakness in the Chola Kingdom and uprising, followed by independence of local feudatories particularly among the Pandyas. The Pandyas were allowed to rule as they wished

during the reign of Kulotthunga I, subjected to sub- ordiness to the Cholas. There was a civil war among the Pandyas, which required Chola’s attention and intervention. But, the Pandyas started gaining promi- nence and the central Chola Kingdom got weakened day by day. Rajaraja Chola II was succeeded by Kulothunga Chola III in 1178 AD.

Chola III 1178- 1218 AD #

Kulothunga Chola III was able to crush the Pandyas in Madurai, Cheras of Venad, Hoysalas of Mysore as well as the Sinhala Kings of Sri Lanka. The century took a turn and a Pandya vassal of Chola Empire named Jatavarman Kulasekaran I ascended to the Madura Throne in 1290, turned rebel to Cholas.

The Cholas invaded him and sacked Madurai. Jatavarman Kulasekaran I surrendered to the Chola king Kulothunga III with wife and son and acknowl- edging his surrender, he was returned his capital. But during this, the ancient coronation hall of Pandyas in Madurai was destroyed and it also destroyed the records if any of the previous Pandyas. To take revenge of this assault, younger brother of Kulase- karan, named Maravarman Sundara Pandyan, who came into power in 1216 AD, invaded the Chola Kingdom. The armies of Sundara Pandyan sacked the cities of Thanjaur and Uraiyur of Chola Kings and drove the Chola kings out in exile. His armies marched up to Chidambaram and in memory of this victory, Sundar Pandyan conducted a Thulabaram at the Chidambaram temple and donated wealth equal to his weight. But, victory of Sundar Pandyan over Cholas was followed by a march of the Hoyasala army towards Sri Rangapattam. Kingdom of the Cholas was returned after interference of Hoyasala king Veera Ballala III, but now Cholas accepted suzerainty of the Sundar Pandyan. This was the revival of second Pandyan Empire and decline of the mighty Chola Power.

Rajaraja Chola III 1216-1256 AD #

When Rajaraja Chola III, son of Kulothunga Chola III came into power in July 1216, the Chola Kingdom had reduced to a very small territory compared to the earlier Cholas. His reign was of continuous troubles. The Pandyas had become the important power in South and Vengi and other

areas were now under the Hoysalas. Since Rajaraja III was now a vassal of Pandyas, he did not pay tributes to the Pandyan overlord. The Pandyan army entered his Chola Capital and Rajaraja III fled. He was captured at Sendamangalam. The Hoyasala King Narsimha interfered and then only the Chola King was released. The Hoysalas attacked the Pan- dya army and defeated them on the banks of river Cauvery. For the rest of his life Chola King Rajaraja III was dependent upon the Hoysals for aid and help. He recognized his son Rajendra Chola III as heir apparent in 1246 AD.

Rajendra Chola III 1246 – 1280 AD #

Rajendra Chola III came to power in 1246 AD, when his father was alive. He tried to stop the rapid decline of the Chola Kingdom, but at this time, the Hoysalas turned hostile and Pandyas became pow- erful. The sudden tide of the Sundar Pandyan and his able successors swept out the Chola Kingdom. Rajendra III faced a war and defeat in that war in the hands of Pandyas. The remaining territories of the Cholas were annexed to Pandya Territory and the new king was Kulasekara Pandyan I , who was in reign since 1268, but got the Chola territories in 1280. The Chola Kingdom ended thus with Rajendra Chola III. Whether Rajendra Chola III died in the war or else, is a question.

TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF CHOLAS #

In the beginning of the medieval period, the Kings did not directly patronize the religious shrines and gave only indirect support. Most of the artworks were produced by the guilds of the artists who were actually funded by the villages and monks.

The tradition of direct patronization of the tem- ples began with the Pallavas.

The Chola period saw the culmination of this tradition, which resulted in the most sophisticated buildings of that era. The Tamil Nadu temples were fully evolved in their style and design by the 8th century.

Special Features of the Chola Architecture: #

• The dvarapalas, or guardian figures, at the entrance to the mandapa, or hall which started from the Palava period became a unique fea- ture of the Chola Temples.

• The Dravidian Style got fully developed after a transition from the rock cut strucutres of the Pallava Period.
• Early Chola temples at the Bank of river Kaveri were smaller and brick made, in comparision to the colossus buildings of the Imperial Cholas.
• The temples of the Imperial Cholas are cov- ered with exquisite well composed sculptures and frescoes.

Largest and tallest of all Indian temples i.e. Siva Temple of Thanjore was built in Chola Period.

• Ganas, among the sculptures at the temple, are the most memorable figures made in Chola temples

Vijayalaya Cholisvara Temple, Thanjore #

Under Pallavas, some of the finest temples had been created at Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram. However, the largest and most impressive buildings were created under the Cholas post 850 AD, when Vijayalaya Chola took the control of Tanjore. The earliest Chola Temple we find at Narthamalai, where Vijayalaya Chola commissioned a temple named “Vijayalaya Cholisvara” temple, dedicated to lord Shiva.

Koranganatha Temple, Srinivasanallur #

Koranganatha Temple is located at Srinivasanal- lur, in Tiruchirapalli District, on the banks of river Cauvery. This temple was built by Parantaka Chola

-I . The base of this temple has the sculpted mythical animals ‘Yazhi’. Yazhi is a recurring pattern and unique feature of Chola architecture.

Muvarkovil, Pudukkottai #

“Muvarkovil” literally means temple of three. It was commissioned by Parantaka Chola -II or one of his feudatories. It has three shrines standing side by side, however, only two are extant now.

Tiruvalisvaram temple, Tiruneveli #

Tiruvalisvaram temple is the first example where all features of the Chola temple architecture are seen. It is covered with well compsoed sculptures and friezes. Entire cornice of the temple has been ornated with creepers and foliage.

Brihadeswarar Temple of Tanjore #

Brihadeswarar Temple or Peruvudaiyar Kovil or Rajrajeshwaram temple at Thanjavur is the world’s first complete “granite” temple. It was built by Rajraja Chola-I and is a part of UNESCO’s world Heritage sites. The Vimana or the temple tower (known as Raja Gopuram) is 216 Feet in height and is one of the tallest buildings of its kind. The Nandi is carved out of a single rock. This temple has completed 1 millennium in 2010. It was dictated by Lord Shiva to Rajraja Chola I, when he triumphed Ilam (Sri Lanka) Island.

Brihadesvara temple, Gangaikondacholapu- ram #

Brihadesvara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram was made by King Rajaraja’s son Rajendra I, who assumed the title “Gangaikonda”.

THE PALLAVA CONFEDERACY #

Pallava literally means a Branch. The Pallavas were a prominent power in India for more than 4 centuries but there are no records about them in the vernacular legends. They were forgotten until discovery of a copper plate grant in 1840. The name “Pallava” appears to be identical to Pahalva, the foreign clan which is frequently mentioned in the Inscriptions and Sanskrit literature. This led to development of a theory that the Pallavas who became a ruling dynasty of the South India might have come from the North Western Frontier of India. This theory has been supported on the basis of the fact that the Pahalavas were prominent in the 2nd century AD and were classified with the Sakas and Yavanas by the local historians.

The other theories say that Pallavas were earlier Feudatories of the Satavahana. Some other historians say that they are offspring of Cholas in one side and Naga Rulers of Ilam (Sri Lanka) on the other. The Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions the name of a king Vishnugopa whose realm was in Kanchi. Several members of the Pallavas bear the same name. The terms Tondaiyar and Tondaman (i.e. people of Tondamandalam) have also been used for the Pallavas.

POLITICAL SUMMARY OF PALLAVAS #

Sivaskanda Varman #

The first Pallava about whom we hear is Sivaskanda Varman of second century AD. He was

lord of many subordinate chiefs and was able to per- form Ashwamedha, which was permissible to only the paramount sovereigns. Then, we know about Hastivarman, who was defeated by Samudragupta. The territories of the Pallavas initially were not very extensive and it was more or less taken as a predatory tribe like the Kalabhras.

Simhavishnu #

The picture about the Pallava dynasty starts getting cleared from Simhavarman, who ascended the throne in sometimes around 570 AD. He was a great military man and is known to have defeated the Tamil Countries and kings of Ceylon. His son Simhavishnu was the first Pallava monarch whose domain is believed to have extended beyond Kan- chipuram. Simhavishnu was patron of Bharavi, the great poet who wrote the famous Kiratrjuniya, the dialogue between Arjuna and Shiva and in which Shiva blessed Arjuna with the Pasupata Shastra. In the early 7th century, the Pallavas succeeded in imposing their rule for a few years upon the whole of the Western Chalukya Kingdom and at an unspecified date, they levied tribute even from the Kalinga territories.

Mahendravarman-I #

We know about a Pallava Monarch Mahendra- varman-I , son of Simhavishnu who encountered with the ambitious Chalukya Monarch Pulkesin II. He was a great patron of art and architecture and 5 celled cave temples at Pallavaram were built dur- ing his reign. Mahendravarman-I wrote Mattavilasa Prahasana or ‘The Farce of Drunken Sport’ . Its a one act play. The celebrated rock cut temples at Mahabalipuram which are commonly called “Seven Pagodas” was excavated by the Pallavas most prob- ably under Mahendravarman I.

Narsimhmvarman-I #

Mahendravarman I was succeeded by Narsim- hmvarman-I in 630 AD, who was equally brave and able prince. He defeated is Chalukyan counterpart Pulkesin II in 642 AD and thus took the revenge of his father’s defeat. Pulkesin II was killed fight- ing him. He assumed the title “Vatapikonda” after defeating the Chalukyan Monarch and sacking the capital Vatapi (Badami). Nayanar saints like Appar

and Tirugnanasambandar lived during his reign. Huen Tsang visited the Pallava kingdom during the reign of Narsimhavarman-I. Among the successors the important ones were Nripatunga who defeated a Pandya King Shrimara.

LEGACY OF PALLAVAS #

While the early Chalukyan ruled in the Karna- taka, the early Pallavas ruled in the Andhra Pradesh. Under the ablest kings such as Mahendravarman, they extended their territories to the Tamil Nadu From the time of great Mahendravarman, finest examples of Pallava art were created in Tamil Nadu such as Shore Temple and 7 pagodas of Mahaba- lipuram.

Today’s Mahabalipuram was known as Mamalai (Green Hill) in ancient times. Pallava King Mahen- dravarman successor Narsimhamvaraman was known as “Mamalla” or “The warrior”. This port city was named “Mamallapuram” after Narsimhamvaraman. This was one of the greatest ports of ancient times and here was a “cosmopolitan’ culture where people rubbed their shoulders with the Romans. This is evident from the roman coins found here and traces of a roman colony located here.

Most important Features of the Pallava Architecture #

• The Pallava architecture shows the transition from the Rock Cut Architecture to the Stone built temples.
• The earliest examples of the Pallava art are the rock cut temples of the 7th century AD, while the later examples are of structural temples built in 8th and 9th century.
• The rock cut reliefs of the Pallavas are the earliest surviving royal portraits after the Kushana images.

At the end of 6th century, King Harsha ruled in the North and he patronized the Buddhist Institu- tions. In South, Pallavas expanded themselves from the much of the Andhra Pradesh of today to much of Tamil Nadu. The Pallava Kings are known to be one of the greatest patrons of the art, music, archi- tecture, dance and literature. King Mahendravarman was a poet and a playwright who wrote a satire on contemporary life titled “Mattavilasa Prahasana”.

Another King of Pallava Dynasty named Rajsimha (Narsimhamvaraman) was such a great lover of art that he used the title “Kalasamudra” for himself.

Mandagapattu rock cut temple #

The earliest monument of Mahendravarman was Mandagapattu rock cut temple which was a single rock cut temple built without any wood, brick or metal. It is located near Villupuram in Tamil Nadu. This temple has the icons of large Dwarapalas which later became a characteristic of almost all south Indian temples.

However, one of the most marvelous chapters opened with the reign of successor of Mahendravar- man i.e. Narsimhavarman “Mamalla” or Rajsimha. During his reign at Mahabalipuram, massive boulders were transformed into a world of divine. These are earliest styles of temples in South India. Kanchipuram was the capital of the Pallavas from 4th to 9th century. Huen Tsang visited this city and wrote it a glorious city. Here, Buddhaghosa lived in 6th century.

Kailasanathar Temple, Kanchipuram #

Kailasanathar Temple is best building created during the reign of Pallava King Narsimhamvaraman. This temple is one of the most beautiful temples in India which has well balanced sculptures like a jewel box. This temple is important for historic point of view because:

• This temple inspired Rajraja Chola I to built another great beauty Brihadeshwar Temple at Tanjore.
• The direct & close intervention of the rulers started after creation of this temple.

Thus, the Kailasanathar temple began a new tradition in India where the kings took deep interest in building the temples with great structural design and antiquity. This temple has the Lion Sculptors everywhere. Lion was the insignia of the Pallavas.

Vaikuntha Perumal temple, Kanchipuram #

Vaikuntha Perumal temple is located at Kanchi- puram in Tamil Nadu. It was built by Nandivarman. It is one of the 108 Divya Desams (108 holiest Shrines of Vishnu). The temple was named “Par-

ameshwara Vishnugriham” after the original name Parmeshwara of Nandivarman.

Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram #

Shore Temple is a granite made temple at Mahab- alipuram built during the rein of Narsimhavarman. This group of temples is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is oldest strucutral temple (in contrast with rock cut temples) in India. Its a beautiful 5 storyed temple, which is a combined complex of 3 shrines, 2 dedicated to Shiva and one to Vishnu. Importance of Shore Temple: The Shore Temple marks the cul- mination of the architectural efforts that began with the cave temples and monolithic rathas.
The mystery of 7 Pagodas: 7 Pagodas is a term associated with the Shore Temple of Mahabalipuram. It is said that 6 more temples were associated with it, all now submerged in water. The legend is that prior to Narsimhamvaraman, the construction of the cave tem- ples had started in the time of Mahendravarman. But later the order for free standing strucutres was given and 7 rathas (free standing temples) were created. After the 2004 Tsunami, the sand deposits of around 500 meters from the Shore temples were gulped by the sea and a clear arrangement of manmade struc- tures was seen (TOI, February 26, 2005). The ASI started the excavations and it was said that sonar system indicated man made structures under the sea.