Indus Valley Civilization

INTRODUCTION #

The Indus Valley Civilization is by far the most urbanized civilization yet discovered. Its largest city area wise currently is Rakhigarhi in Haryana. Harappa, Mohan-jo-daro and Dholavira are the other key centres of this civilization. Peoples of Harappan culture worshipped mother nature, used cosmetics, traded overseas, largely secular culture and polity through yet to be known.

EXTENT OF THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION #

The centre of the civilization was in Sind and Punjab in undivided India. From this centre, the civilization spread towards all direction. In West, the last extent is seaboard of South Baluchistan at the Suktagendor which can be called its western border.

In east Alamagirpur in Uttar Pradesh (District Meerut) can be called its Eastern Border. In North it extended up to Manda in Jammu & Kashmir and in south it extended up to Bhagvatrav in Narmada Estu- ary of Gujarat. However, later at Diamabad (District Ahamed Nagar Maharashtra) was the site where four figurines of Bronze on the bank of Pravara River found. This pushed the civilization’s extension in further south. Indus civilization remnants have been discovered from as far south as Mumbai in Maha- rashtra State.

Observations #

Most settlements in the Indus Valley Civilization are on the banks of rivers.

As far as extension is concerned, the Indus civilization was largest of the four ancient urban

civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, South Asia (Indus Valley) and China.

It covered an area of around 13 Lakh square kilometers.

This area is triangular in shape and no other ancient civilization was extended to such a large area.

Remains of the site first found at Harappa so it is also called Harappan Civilization.

Modern dating methods keep the civilization to be ranging from 2900 to 2000BC.

The people of this civilization were definitely in touch with the other civilizations, most prominentaly being the Mesopotamian civilization.

THE QUESTIONS OF ORIGIN OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION #

There are two main opinions:

1. Origin from Mehrgarh
2. Origin from South India

Most researches link the origin of the Indus Val- ley Civilization to the Neolithic Mehrgarh. It is said that Mehrgarh was a centre of transformation from the hunter gatherer to farming (wheat and barley are found) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats).

Mehrgarh dates back to 7000 BC and as early as 5000 BC. Trade links with Arabian Sea coast and with central Asia have been established. So in the light of these evidences it has been made clear that Foundation of Indus valley civilization was laid in the Neolithic period.

There is a contemporary Neolithic settle-ment found in South India in Karnataka also. From this

point of view, some say that Harappan Civilization was a Dravidian Civilization.

SALIENT COMMON FEATURES OF ENTIRE CIVILIZATION #

The first common feature is Indus script on seals. This script has not been deciphered yet. That is why all we know about the culture and life of those people is mostly derived knowledge from the other objects found.

The second most important feature is town plan- ning. The main features of town planning were use of baked as well as sun dried bricks, well planned straight roads and a system of drainage.

Most urban centres had a fortified citadel.

A house held a kitchen, well or a water reservoir.

Use of standard weights and measurement has been found throughout the civilization.

They used to make pottery on wheels. They used to bury the dead.

OBSERVATIONS ABOUT HARAPPA AND MOHENJO-DARO #

Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are 500 kms apart from each other. These, along with Dholavira, are called the nucleus cities of the civilization.

Harappa, the first discovered site of this civiliza- tion was on bank of river Ravi, while Mohenjo-Daro was on banks of Indus River. Each of them has two prominent mounds where excavations took place.

Notable findings at Harappa are rows of grana- ries, Citadels, Furnaces and a crucible to melt the bronze.

Notable findings at Mohenjo-Daro are the Great Bath, uniform buildings and weights, hidden drains and other hallmarks of the civilization. This is the site where most unicorn seals have been found. Mohenjo-Daro is also sometimes known as largest urban centre of the civilization. Now, its Rakhigarhi (Haryana).

Great Bath #

The most famous building found at Mohen- jo-Daro is a great bath. It is a 6×12 meter specimen of beautiful brick work. The water for the bath was

provided from a well in an adjacent room. The floor was made up of bricks. Floor and outer walls were bituminized so that there is no leakage of water. There are open porch’s on four sides of the bath. There is use of Burnt bricks, Mortar and Gypsum in the Great bath but no use of stone is there.

The largest building found at Mohenjo-Daro is a grainary. Then, there was also a pillared hall for social gatherings.

The other notable findings at Mohenjo-Daro are instruments of cotton weaving. Bronze figurine of dancing girl, evidence of violence and killing, seal of the mother goddess, the figurine of beared man, the seal of Proto Shiva, a seal in which a man is sacrificing a woman with his knife.

OBSERVATIONS ABOUT OTHER SITES #

Third important centre of the civilization is Dholavira in the Rann of Kutch area. The site is relatively newly discovered and here the historians found a tantalizing signboard with Indus script.

Dholavira is different from Harappa and Mohen- jo-Daro on the account that its drainage system is much more elaborated then these two cities. While the two cities had two mounds each, leading to conclusion that there were two citadels, Dholavira had three citadels. Each of these three citadels of Dholavira were improved than Harappa and Mohen- jo-Daro and had an inner enclosure as well.

The Dholavira is the second largest Indus Valley Site in independent India. The largest is Rakhigarhi near Hissar in Haryana. Near Hissar, there is another site called Banawali where Barley was a common crop in Indus valley times.

The western most site Suktagendor is located near present borders of Iran and it was an important coastal / port town. Another important port town was Lothal. One more coastal city was Balakot, which is located near Karachi in Pakistan.

The presence of horse has been doubtful in Indus Valley Civilization. The site where the his- torians were able to collect some bones of Horse is Surkotada in Bhuj area of Gujarat.

The Kalibangan site in the Hanumangarh district of Rajasthan has given evidence of both Pre-hara-

ppan and harappan civilization. Here the historians have found a ploughed field and bones of camel. The peculiar type of circular and rectangular graves is another feature of Kalibangan. In terms of town planning, Kalibangan was not as developed as Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Dholavira because here we neither find use of baked bricks nor a drainage system.

A different kind of town planning we found at Lothal. This city was divided into 6 sections and each section had a wide platform of earthen bricks. Lothal and Rangpur are two sites where historians found rice husk. The Lothal has an artificial dock. Lothal’s dock—the world’s earliest known, con- nected the city to an ancient course of the Sabarmati river on the trade route between Harappan cities in Sindh and the peninsula of Saurashtra when the surrounding Kutch desert of today was a part of the Arabian Sea.It was a vital and thriving trade centre in ancient times, with its trade of beads, gems and valuable ornaments reaching the far corners of West Asia and Africa.

A bead making factory has also been found in Lothal. A seal from Iran has been found which indicates its link with overseas countries.

However, Lothal is different from other sites of Indus Valley Civilization in terms of town planning that it has entry to the houses on the main street, while in other sites have shown lateral entry.

The only city in the Indus Valley civilization which does not have a citadel was Chanhu Daro, located some 130 kilometers south of Mohenjo-Daro.

Alamagirpur was the eastern boundary of the Indus Valley Civilization. The evidences say that this site developed in mature Harappan phase. Kot Diji and Amri were pre-harappan sites.

The above information has been summarized in the following table:

Site	Point to be Noted
Dholavira	Signboard, 3 citadels with improved inner enclosure
Suktagendor, Lothal and Balakot	Coastal    Cities    and    Port Towns
Surkotda	Horse Bones

Kalibangan	Ploughed Field, Bones of Camel, Circular and Rectan- gular Graves, Neither Baked Bricks nor a Drainage system.
Lothal	6 sections in city, Artificial dockyard, Entry from the main street instead of lateral entry that was common, The vase depicting a thirsty crow as been found at Lothal.
Lothal and Rangpur	Rice Husk

LIFE AT INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION #

Administration #

Cities are the symbols of the Indus Valley civ- ilization and were characterized by the density of population, close integration between economic and social processes, tech-economic developments, care- ful planning for expansion and promotion of trade and commerce, providing opportunities and scope of work to artisans and craftsmen etc. This was a sort of urban revolution, which could not have been possible without the strong central authority, special- ized economic organization and socio-cultural unity.

The size and architectural complexity of all large Harappan cities mean something in terms of a socio-cultural development. The lay-out of the streets, the presence of a large-scale drainage system with its requirement for constant tending, the mon- umental citadels, all can be taken as an indication of tendencies toward a strong central government.

Another feature of Harappan urbanization was the elaborate craft specialization and the contacts with other reasonably distant parts of asia. But the greatest challenge to the archaeologists is their failure to get any idea of the Harappan urban insti- tutions. For example, we almost know nothing about the form of the state and the economic institutions.

Maritime commerce with Mesopotamia was a part to their life, but the knowledge of inner working of these complex Harappan urban economic institu- tions completely eludes us.

Language #

Since the Harappa script has not been deci- phered. We do not have a great deal of knowledge about the Harappan language. The script was written

from left to right and this is something on which almost all scholars agree. Here are some more guess works done:

The language might be proto-Sanskrit or pro- to-Dravidian, nobody knows.

The harappan inscriptions are on Seals, copper tablets, bone, ivory but not on Bricks.

Religion #

Most prominent religious figures are Unicorn, Pashupatinath, Seven mothers (sapta matrika) and compound creatures. The later three are now incul- cated in Hindu religion.

The mother goddess was dominant shows that the society could be predominantly matriarchal.

There was a division of labour and society was diversified and stratified. The people were scholars, artisans, traders, warriors and businessmen.

Protoshiva or Pashupati #

One and only possibly male deity, as depicted on various seals. This deity is surrounded by 4 wild animals and this gives an indication that it is Pashu- patinath or a prototype of Lord Shiva. The deity is surrounded by 4 animals viz. an elephant, a tiger, a buffalo and a rhinoceros. Apart from this there 2 deers beneath the seat of the deity. The head dress of the deity has two horns. It wears as number of bangles and has a pictoral round the neck, and an inscription of seven letters appears at the top.

This representation has at least three concepts which are usually associated with Shiva viz., that he is (i) Trimukha (three-faced), (ii) Pashupati (Lord of animals), and (iii) Yogisvara or Mahayogi. The first two aspects are apparent from the seal itself. The deity is sitting cross-legged in a Padmasana posture with eyes turned towards the tip of the nose which evidence the Yogisvara aspect of the deity.

Linga Worship #

Stone symbols of both male and female sex organs have been found which gives in indication that Phallus or Linga worship was in practice.

Tree Worship and other rituals #

The peepal tree has been depicted on many seals which gives a sense that it might be a sacred tree.

Humped bull was a venerated animal and there are evidences of snake worship and snake charmers.

No temples, No special places of worship, no castes. The people had a sense of arts and crafts and it is proved by the toys, figurines, bangles, stone statues, metal statues, etc. The people were expert in making seals.

Talisman #

On a seal is depicted a six-rayed motif which may signify the sun. Swastiks and cross signs were harbingers of good luck. A shell inlay, shaped like a heart, was probably used as a Talisman.

Food #

Both veg and nonveg life. There are evidences of cultivation of Wheat, Barley, Rice, Date, melon, lemon etc. people were cattle herders and used milk and milk products. There are evidences that people made sweets. Half burnt bones give evidence of nonveg life.

Dress #

A figure of a bearded man has been found in Mohenjo-Daro which indicated that they used sewn clothings. The cloth used to cover the torso in the upper part of the body in such as way that it kept right hand Free.

There are evidences that the people took interest in cosmetics lipstick founded and had great aesthetic sense. Men kept long hair and kept bread or also shaven beard.

The people of Indus valley civilization were aware of Bronze mirrors, Ivory Combs, antimony rods but NOT hair dyes.

Sports and Entertainments #

The large number of terracotta figurines and toys such as cart, bull, elephant, monkeys, chariots, whistles etc. indicate that the children entertained themselves.

There are no clear evidences of Music in the civilization, however, the finding of a dance girl bronze figurine gives some insight about the social entertainment.

Tools, Arms and Weapons #

They are made up of Copper and Bronze. They were unaware of the use of Iron.

Science & Technology #

The Harappan civilization was the cradle of mathematics from where both the concept of numbers and the numerical system originated. The numerical system developed by the Harappan included sym- bols for most numbers and several innovations for mathematical manipulations such as addition and multiplication.

The Harappan numerical system is decimal and additive multiplicative in usage. There are symbols for numerical for 4 to 100, 1000 and their deriva- tives. The numerical system which was first used by the Harappan later found its way into other ancient civilization.

These people are known to have constructed the world’s first tidal port at Lothal at the head of the gulf of Khambhat. They possessed a high degree of knowledge relating to the ebb and flow of tides and carried on brisk overseas trade with other civilizations.

They were also conversant with the medical sciences and used various herbs and drugs to treat diseases. The people of Indus valley Civilization practiced Trephination which is kind of medical intervention making a burr hole in the skull to treat migraines and mental disorders. The evidences of Trephination have been found at Lothal, Kalibangan and Burzahom but not at Harappa or most other sites.

Burial Practice #

Surkotda and Dholavira are two sites where the burial practice resembled the megalithic burial prac- tice. Burzhahom is a Neolithic site and here practice of burying dogs with the masters was common.

Economy #

The economy was based upon agriculture as well as trade. Commerce was important and there were links from overseas places.

Agriculture #

The agriculture was in flourishing condition which was due to timely and good rains. They sowed many crops including the rice, wheat, cotton, barley etc. Other crops were dates, melon, pea etc.

Predominantly Rainfed Crops, as Irrigation was based upon the rainwater but also the sources of irrigations were available.

Wheat and barley were the most important Harappan Crops.

In Harappa, 3 principle varieties of Wheat were sown, three varieties of barleys were also sown. The cultivation of lentils, mustard, linseed, Sesamum has been found. The Finger millet, Ragi, Bajra, Jawar were cultivated and it seems that they diffused from Africa.

Animal Husbandry #

The humped bull was domesticated animal, other were buffalo, pigs, elephants, donkeys, goats and sheeps. Only Surkotada has given an evidence of ‘domestication of Horse’. Generally, Horse is absent in the civilization.

The goats, cows and Sheep were commonly domesticated in the mature harappan phase but the evidences of Buffalo have not been found in that much quantity.

Transportation #

The carts and chariots were means of transport. For sea trade big boats were there to serve the purpose.

Foreign Affairs #

It has been established that this civilization had relationships with Mesopotamia civilization. In various cities of Mesopotamia, the harappan seals have been found which prove these relationships. The description of Meluha in the Mesopotamian literature refers to India. The Mesopotamian records mention the word Meluha for Indus region. The ancient name of the river Indus was Meluha. Sindhu is Sanskrit name, given by Hindus (Aryans), who invaded India.

Consumer Affairs #

The weights and measurements were calibrated to a considerable extent. The measures were stand- ardized and perhaps there is binary system in use. A scale made up of Elephant tusk has been found at Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal.

Finance, Business and Industry #

There was use of many kinds of metals includ- ing Gold, Silver, Copper, Lapis Lazuli , Turquoise, Amethyst, Alabaster, jade etc. It has been guessed

that among the precious stones in the Harappan civilization, Jade came from Central Asia, Turquoise came from Iran , Amethyst came from Maharashtra and Lapis lazuli came from Afghanistan.

A Jewellery hoard has been found at Allahdino, an Indus valley Site near congregation of Indus river and Arabian sea. It has a necklace of 36 carnelian beads, Bronze spacer beads and a copper bead cov- ered with Gold foil and 20 Gold lumps.

The trade was multifaceted. It was operated on intra regional as well as inter regional basis and had a guild system coupled with nomadic trade. There are no evidences of monetary exchange.

Well developed stoneware industry. The manu- facturing of the stone bangles was most prevalent in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Harappan civilization had an Economic Zone. This economic zone was along the bank of the Sirhind river.

Metallurgy #

These people were aware of Gold, Silver, Copper, Brass, Bronze and Tin but did not know about Iron.

Copper was the most widely used metal. Ganeshwar in Sikar District of Rajasthan is sup-

posed to be the supplier of Copper to the cities of Indus Valley. However, the largest hoard of Copper came from Gungeria.

Pottery #

A large variety of pottery, both plain and deco- rated, has been found. Harappan wares were shaped on a potter’s wheel. The potters wheels, being made of wood, have not survived.

The kilns in which the pots were baked have been unearthed. The heating was skilfully controlled as most of the pottery was carefully fired. Once the vessel was shaped on the wheels, the ochre was painted over it. Then the designs were painted on this red surface with a brush in black.

The black colour was derived from magniferous haematite.

The designs include a series of intersecting cir- cles (a pattern exclusively found in Indus culture), tree placed in metopes, motif resembling a large comb, chessboard pattern, triangles, solar device, etc. figures of animals, birds, snake or fish occur

rarely. Animals are shown with grass and birds on trees. No human figure is depicted on the pottery from Mohenjodaro except a few pottery pieces discovered from Harappa portray a man and a child.

At lothal, a vase painting probably depicting the folk tale the thirsty crow and on another jar from the same site he has identified the depiction of the folk tale the cunning fox.

Seals #

The seals were used throughout the length and breadth of this civilization. Made of steatite, these seals range in size from 1cm to 5cm. two main types are seen:

• first, square with a carved animal and inscrip- tion.
• second, rectangular with an inscription only.

The square seals have a small perforated boss at the back while the rectangular ones have a hole on the back of the seal itself.

The seals were very popular, more than 1200 seals have been found at Mohenjodaro alone. The most remarkable one is the Pashupati seal depicting shiva seated on a stool flanked by an elephant, tiger, Rhinoceros and buffalo. Below the stool are two antelopes or goats.

On one seal a goddess stands nude between the branches of a pipal tree, before which kneels a worshipper. Behind the worshipper stands a human faced goat and below are seven devotees engaged in a dance.

A scene very often repeated on seals shows a man holding back two roaring tigers with his out-stretched arms. This is similar to the Sumerian Gilgamesh and his lions.

The animal most frequently encountered on Indus seals is a humpless bull, shown in profile with its horns superimposed on each other and pointing forward. For this feature it has generally been called a unicorn.

QUESTION OF DECLINE OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION #

There are various theories of collapse of the Harappan civilization. The main theories are:

1. Environment Changes
2. Aryan Invasion

Environmental Changes #

It declined because of the change in the course of the rivers or because the rivers dried up. The decline theory of environment degradation was given by John Marshall. The theory says that cutting of forests for agricultural and timber for fuel may have resulted in the barren land and silting of rivers. Another version says that it declined and decayed because of the Floods in the rivers. It has been postulated that in Saraswati region, the civilization declined mainly because of the shifting of the river channels. However, the decline was not sudden and took several hundred years.

Aryan Invasion #

There is a theory that is based upon a Shloka in Rig Veda (VI.27.5). This Shloka says:

In aid of Abhyavartin Cayamana, Indra destroyed the seed of Varasikha.

At Hariyupiyah he smote the vanguard of the Vrcivans, and the rear fled freighted.

This sloka mentions Hari-yupiah which has been linked to Harappa. Further it has been argued by the scholars that settlements in Baluchistan region were put under fire by the barbaric Aryans and invaders. There are found around 6 groups of human skeletons in Mohenjo-Daro which gives an indication that the civilization was subject to the foreign invasions. However, Wheeler says: It is not susceptible to proof and no serious value. The harappan civilization got disappeared around 1500 BC and the vacuum cre- ated was filled by numerous future cultures having the imprints of both ‘continuity and changes’.