Gupta Empire

INTRODUCTION #

A century gap between the decline of Kushana & Satavahanas (around 220-230 AD), till the rise of the Imperial Gupta Dynasty a century later, is known to be one of the darkest in the whole of history of India. After the disintegration of the Mauryas, the Kushanas kept the North united and Satavahanas kept the Deccan united. Further south there were three Kingdoms Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas. In north, the Malwas, Yaudheyas, Kunidas etc. con- tributed to the decline of Kushanas and in Deccan, the Vakatas and Ikshwaku contributed to the fall of Satavahana dynasty. This dark period of one century was followed by a dawn of classical age which is also known as the Golden Age of Indian History. The classical age refers to the period between 320 AD to 550 AD when India was united again under the Gupta Dynasty. This period marks the crystallization of Hindu Culture and known for developments in all walks of life including the science, technology, engi- neering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy. The founder of this dynasty was Sri Gupta. But there were other early Guptas mentioned in many inscriptions such as Shiva Gupta in Nasik Inscription and Puru Gupta in Karle Inscription. The origin of Gupta is shrouded in mystery.

THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF GUPTAS #

Though, the earlier origins of the family of the Guptas are not traceable, yet it is now almost accepted that the Gupta Kings were of a Gotra known as Dharana. It is stated in the Poona Copper Plate Inscription of Prabhavatigupta. Prabhavatigupta was a Vaktaka queen who was daughter of Chandra

Gupta II and his wife Kubernaga, who was from the Naga family. The views of the different scholars regarding the origin of the Guptas have been sum- marized in the following table:

Scholar	View
A.S. Altekar	Gupta were vaishyas as the ancient texts mention that the surname ending with Gupta were Vaishyas.
Dr. H C Raichaudhury	Guptas were Brahmins.
R C Tripathi	Guptas were Brahmins.
Dr. V Upadhyaya, Hira Chand Ojha	Guptas were Kshatriyas.
K P Jayaswal & Dasharatha Sharma	Guptas were Jats and same Gotra still exists in Rajasthan.
R C Mazumdar	Guptas were from Ikshwaku Clan.
D. R. Regmi	They are closely related to the Abhira Kings of Nepal.

The Kshatriya Origin of the Guptas has been maintained on the account that Chandragupta II wedded to a princess named Kumara Devi, who belonged to an ancient Licchhavi clan. The Licchhavi clan was celebrated during the period of Bimbisara and Ajatshatru but for next 9 centuries, the history is lost. Therefore, it is the marriage of Kumaradevi with the Chandragupta II, which has been the basis of arguments that Guptas were Kshatriyas.

Sri Gupta (240-280 AD) #

Mentioned in the Poona Copper inscription of Prabhavati Gupta. He was a Hindu Vaishnavite.

Gupta Era: Chandragupta-I ascended to the throne in 319-320 AD. The Valabhi Era of Gujarat has been identified coterminous with the Gupta Era. The Valabhi kings were feudatories of the Guptas and they might have used it as era of their overlords. Dr. Fleet has treated with this at length and has established that beginning of this era is Saka era 242, which means 242 + 78 = 320 AD. This coincides with the Nepal Era of Jaydev-I that is 320 AD.

Sri Gupta was the founder of the Gupta dynasty. The details about the Sri Gupta, the first ruler of the Gupta Dynasty come from the accounts of ITsing, who came to India in around 690 AD. Sri Gupta has been identified with Che-li-ki-to of ITsing, Some of the scholars are of the view that Sri Gupta was a feudatory of the Kushanas.

Ghatotkacha: (c. 280-319 A.D.) #

Ghatotkacha was son of Sri Gupta and he suc- ceeded him after his death. Not many details are available about Ghatotkacha.

Chandragupta I (c. 319-335 AD) #

Chandragupta-I was son of Ghatotkacha and is considered to be the real founder of Gupta Empire. He was most powerful monarch and assumed the title of Maharajadhiraj. The earlier kings were given the titles Maharaja only. Chandragupta –I can be called the first independent ruler of the Gupta Dynasty. He was married to Licchhavi princess Kumara Devi and this helped him to get influence and extend the dominion. Samudragupta was born of this dominion. This is proved by the inscriptions of Samudragupta, in which he proudly described himself as Licchav- idauhitra, but not at Guptaputra.

Shaka embassy to Samudragupta: The Saka dynasty which was overthrown in 395 AD had been originally founded in the first century by a chief named Bhumaka. Bhumaka was followed by Nahap- ana and Nahapana was destroyed by an Andhra King Gautamiputra Satakarni in 125 AD. However, the local government fell into the hands of Chastana and his descendants. In the Middle of the second century, Satrap Rudradaman who was grandson of Chastana defeated his Andhra Rival Vashishtiputra Satakarni, who was eventually married to his daugh- ter. Rudradaman firmly established his power in west

(Malwa, Kutch, Sindh, Konkan and other parts). The capital of Chastana and his descendants was Ujjain, which was one of the important commercial centers. Samudragupta was not able to undertake the conquest of the west and had received an embassy from Rudrasena, descendant of Rudradaman. But the rivalry did not ended and Chandragupta II, son of Samudragupta finally crushed his western rivals.

Samudragupta: (335-380 AD) #

Samudragupta was son of Chandragupta –I and Kumaradevi. He ascended the throne in 335 AD. Before his death, probably 4 or 5 years back, Chan- dragupta-I had publicly announced that Samudragupta would be his heir apparent and thus abdicated the throne in his favor. This was justified by the killer instincts of Samudragupta who displayed a greater degree of skill in the arts of both peace and war. But this nomination was perhaps not liked by many and coins of an obscure prince Kacha say that there was some trouble over the succession. Samudragupta was the greatest ruler of the Gupta Dynasty and ruled till around 380 AD. The western scholars equate him with Napoleon and call him Indian Napoleon due to the extensive military conquests. His court poet and minister Harisena composed the Allahabad pillar Inscription or Prayag Prasasti. The Pillar was an Asokan Pillar erected by Asoka six century before him.

This Inscription is a eulogy of Samudragupta and mentions about the conquests of Samudragupta and boundaries of the Gupta Empire. As per this inscription, Samudragupta defeated 9 kings in North, 12 Kings in South, reduced all the Atavika states to vassalage. It also mentions that more than five states in the frontier states surrendered and accepted his suzerainty. He had close contact with the king- dom of Ceylon and South East Asian colonies. The eulogy of Harisena describes him as hero of 100 battles. He performed Ashvamedha Yajna, this has been testified by a seal of Samudragupta bearing a Horse. This was probably first Ashvamedha after Pushyamitra Shunga. He is depicted in his coins playing Veena. He allowed the king of Ceylon to build a monastery at Bodhgaya.

Another term used by Harisena for him is Kavi- raja, which testified him as a patron of poetic arts

and a poet himself. Samudragupta also assumed the title of Vikramanka. The reign of Samudragupta was from Brahmaputra to Chambal and from Himalaya to Narmada in south and he subdued the Shakas and Kushanas. The dominion under the direct gov- ernment of Samudragupta in the middle of the 4th century was thus comprised of all the populous and fertile areas of the Northern India. He established diplomatic relations with the Kushana Kings of Gandhar and Kabul and the Buddhist king of Ceylon.

In 330 AD, Meghavarna, the Buddhist King of Ceylon had sent two monks, one of whose was his brother to visit a monastery built by Ashoka. But they got scant hospitality and returned with com- plaints. Later, Meghavarna sent a mission laden with gems and gifts to Samudragupta with a request to built a monastery on the Indian Soil. The flattered Samudragupta gave permission. This monastery was built near the Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya. The purpose was recorded in a copper plate and it described the monastery with a height of 3 stories and containing 6 halls.

When Huen Tsang visited it he saw it occupied by Thousands of Monks and it extended ample hospitality to visiting monks.

Chandragupta-II (Chandragupta Vikram- aditya) #

Chandragupta II, the great was son of Sam- udragupta and Datta Devi. Not much is known about the character but the corroborated facts about his life prove that he was a strong, vigorous ruler and was well qualified to govern and extend his empire.

Before Chandragupta II, his elder brother Ramagupta ascended the throne after death of Samudragupta. Through, not many details about Ramagupta are available; the drama Devichan- draguptam of Vishakhadatta gives an account that at Shringararupakam, Ramagupta was badly defeated by a Saka chieftain. To secure the people, he agreed to surrender his queen Druvadevi to the Sakas. Chandragupta II objected this and, Chandragupta-II in disguise of queen Druvadevi entered enemy’s camp and killed the Saka king to restore the huge empire, queen and the dynasty.

Chandragupta II and Mahrauli Inscription [The Mahrauli Iron Pillar was originally placed on a

hill near the Beas. and was brought to Delhi by a King of Delhi the Gupta Empire by Radhakumud Mookerji.] This pillar credits Chandragupta with the following:1. Conquest of the Vanga Countries by his battling alone against the confederacy of the enemies united against him.2. Conquest of Vahlakas in a fight that ran across seven mouths of Sindhu.3. Spread his fame to southern seas.4. Attained Eka- dhirajjyam (United Kingdom) by prowess of his arms.This pillar was established by Chandragupta as Vishnupada in the honor of Lord Vishnu.

Ramagupta is portrayed in this drama as a Coward king and impotent. Chandragupta II killed his brother and married to his widow, Druvadevi.

Chandragupta reign covered a wide territory whose northern limit was Vahlakas Country, Southern Limit was the Ocean, Western Limit was the Mouth of Indus and Eastern Limit was Vanga. Marriage alliances and conquests were one of the ways of Chandragupta II to extend his power and kingdom. His daughter Prabhavati was married to a Vaktaka prince. The prince died in due course and his young son became the ruler but the virtual ruler was Prabhavati. This helped Chandragupta II to exercise indirect rule over the Vaktataka Kingdom also. The most important event of Chandragupta II’s reign was conquest of Sakas. He destroyed the Saka chieftain Rudrasena III and annexed his kingdom.

His victory over Malwa helped in prosperity of the Malwa region and Ujjain became a commercial hub. Some scholars call Ujjain his second capital. Chinese traveller Fa Hien had visited India during the time of Chandragupta II. Numerous scholars and artists adorned the court of Chandragupta II.

Observations of Fa Hien’s visit during Vikramaditya reign #

Pataliputra was considerably neglected by the warrior kings like Samudragupta and Vikramaditya, but it continued to be a magnificent and populous city though out the reign of Chandragupta II.Later Patliputra was reduced to ruins in the wake of the Hun invasions in the 6th century. However, Patali- putra was rebuilt and revived by Shershah Suri as today’s Patna.

The accounts of Fa Hien give a contemporary account  of  the  administration  of  Chandragupta

Vikramaditya. Fa Hien (337 ca. 422 AD) was so much absorbed in his quest for Buddhist books, legends, and miracles that he could not mention the name of the mighty monarch in whose rule he lived for 6 years. The picture he depicted cannot solve all the queries of the historians of today. Yet, they give a vivid picture of the state of the country.

At Pataliputra, he saw and was impressed by Asoka’s palace so it is sure that Asoka’s palace was in existence even in the Gupta Era. He also describes about 1 stupa and 2 monasteries nearby , also ascribed to Asoka. He mentioned about 600-700 monks living there and learning their lectures from teachers from all quarters. He mentions that towns of Magadha were largest in the area of Gangetic Plains and he calls it central India. He mentioned that there were a lot of charitable institutions, rest houses, and there was an excellent Free Hospital in the Capital which was endowed by benevolent citizens. The poor and helpless patients suffering from all kinds of illnesses were taken care of and doctors attended them and they were given food and medicine as per their wants.

This depiction proves the earliest foundation of Charity and this charity was first of its kind in the world which spoke of characters of the citizens of the Gupta Era. India was great as far as Charity was concerned and as we are told, earliest charitable hospital in Europe or anywhere else in the world was opened in 10th century.

Fa Hien further explained that the population of the western part (Malwa) lived happily and had no worries. He mentioned that they don’t have to register their household and were not required to attend any magitrate. People did not lock their houses. The passports and those who were willing to stay may stay and those willing to go. Fa Hien further mentioned that no one kills the living things, or drinks wine or eats Onion or garlic. They don’t keep pigs and fowls, there is no dealing of cattle, and there are no butchers. Only Chandals did all these.

Fa Hien mentioned about the Chandala, who dwelt apart and they were required to keep a piece of wood as a warning of their approach so that other folk might not get polluted. Chandals were the only offenders of Dharma, as per Fa Hien. About administration, Fa Hien mentioned that the

authorities interfered as little as possible with the subject and they were left free to prosper and grow rich in their own way.

Fa Hien studied Sanskrit for 3 years at Patalipu- tra and two years at the Port of Tamralipti without let or hindrance. The Roads were clear and safe for the passengers. The accounts of Fa Hien give a clear indication that India was probably never governed better than the era of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. The prosperity of the Indians and tranquility of the empire have been testified by the account of Fa-Hien and his unobstructed itinerary all around gives the details about the Golden Era of India.

9 Gems (Navratnas) of Chandragupta Vikramaditya #

Chandragupta II was known for his deep inter- est in art and culture and nine gems or Navratna adorned his court. The various fields of these 9 gems prove that Chandragupta gave patronage to arts and literature. Brief description about the nine Ratnas is as follows.

Amarsimha #

Amarsimha was a Sanskrit lexicographer and a poet and his Amarkosha is a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots, homonyms and synonyms. It is also called Trikanda as it has 3 parts viz. Kanda 1, Kanda 2 and Kanda 3. It has 10 thousand words in it.

Dhanvantri #

Dhanvantri was a great Physician.

Harisena #

Harisena is known to have composed the Prayag Prasasti or Allahabad Pillar Inscription. The title of this inscription of Kavya, but it has both prose and verse. The whole poem is in one sentence including first 8 stanzas of poetry and a long sentence and a concluding stanza. Harisena in his old age was in the court of Chandragupta and describes him as Noble, and asks him “You Protect all this earth”.

Kalidasa #

Kalidasa is the immortal poet and playwright of India and a peerless genius whose works became famous worldwide Translation of Kalidasa’s works in numerous Indian and Foreign Languages have

spread his fame all over the world and now he ranks among the top poets of all times.

Rabindranath Tagore, not only propagated the works of Kalidasa but also expounded their mean- ings and philosophy that made him an immortal poet dramatists.

Kahapanaka #

Kahapanka was an astrologer. Not many details about him are found.

Sanku #

Sanku was in the field of Architecture.

Varahamihira #

Varahamihira (died 587 AD) lived in Ujjain and he wrote three important books: Panchasiddhantika, Brihat Samhita, and Brihat Jataka. The Panchasid- dhantika is a summary of five early astronomical systems including the Surya Siddhanta. Another system described by him, the Paitamaha Siddhanta, appears to have many similarities with the ancient Vedanga Jyotisha of Lagadha. Brihat Samhita is a compilataion of an assortment of topics that provides interesting details of the beliefs of those times. Bri- hat Jataka is a book on astrology which appears to be considerably influenced by Greek astrology.

Vararuchi #

Vararuchi is the name of another gem of Chan- dragupta Vikramaditya, who was a grammarian and Sanskrit scholar. Some historians have identified him with Katyayana. Vararuchi is said to be the author of Prakrit Prakasha, which is first Grammar of Prakrit Language.

Vetalbhatta #

Vetalbhatta was a magician.

Kumaragupta –I (415-455 AD) #

Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta I or Mahedraditya. The period assigned to him is 415-455 AD and his reign spanned for a long period of 40 years. He was an able ruler and there is no doubt that his empire suffered no diminution but extended. Like his grandfather, he celebrated the horse sacrifice (Ashvamedha) as an

assertion to his paramount supremacy. The records furnish that at the close of his reign, Kumaragupta’s dominion suffered severely from the invasion of Huna Hordes, all over North India. The invaders from South India also disturbed him. He issued coins with images of killing a lion. He also issued a coin which bear the picture of Kartikeya.

Skandagupta: (455-467 AD) #

Kumaragupta–I was succeeded by Skandagupta. Skandagupta was the last powerful king of the Gupta Empire. He assumed the title of Vikramaditya, Devraj and Sakapan and subdued the invaders (Pushyamitras and Hunas) and brought back the peace and glory of his father. He faced invasion of White Huns, the central Asian tribes. He issued 4 types of Gold coins and 4 types of Silver coin. Bhitari Inscription details about the prowess of Skandagupta. After his death in 467 AD, the Gupta empire declined rapidly.

THE LIFE IN GUPTA EMPIRE #

Caste System #

As Fa Hien, mentions that Chandals lived at the outskirts of the society in miserable conditions and were segregated from the society proved that in Gupta Era the caste system had crystalized and became very rigid with Brahmins getting the top position in the society.

International Trade #

Gupta had a flourishing trade with the Roman empire. The Trade contacts developed during the Kushana Period continued and Chandragupta II’s conquest in western India further added to this trade. The people were prosperous and they were free to grow and flourish. The imporant port towns were Brigukachchaha, Kalyana & Sind, which [were major centers of trade] with the Romans. Ujjain had become a major commercial center and it was linked to southern and northern India. Nasik, Paithan, Pataliputra, Benares were other major trade centers. Trade was badly affected by the Huna Invasions. Silk, Leather goods, Fur, Iron Products, Ivory, pearl, Spices and Indigo were major export items. The Port of Tamralipti was a major centre of Trade with East Asia. Most of the commodities were taxed One Fifth of the value as a toll in international Trade.

Agriculture #

Agriculture was the main occupation in Gupta Empire and there was no governmental interference. The land was fertile and means of irrigation were simple.

Occupation #

Gupta period had many cloth centers and silk industry witnessed a significant development during this period. The Mandsor Inscriptions gives account that Gupta people were helped to a great extent for the growth of Silk Industry. Gold, silver and Copper was used in making ornaments and issuing coins. The Gold coins show the pomp, power and pros- perity of the empire. The Coins of Samudragupta and Kumaragupta issued after the Ashvamedha depict the horse tied to a Yupastambha. The coins of Chandragupta bear Garuda preying a snake.

Guild System #

In ancient history, the glimpses of guild systems are seen in Jatakas Tales. Guilds refer to organiza- tions of artisans, and traders, which have high place in the society. In Gupta Era, the activities of Guilds were increased and these activities are recorded in various literature, inscription, clay seals etc. There is a mention of Guild of architects in Raghuvamsa. The Indore Copper plate inscription mentions about a guild of oilmen. The Mandsor Inscription mentions the guild of silk weavers. The guild system declined after the Gupta Period.

Gupta Administration #

There was an efficient administration established in the Gupta Empire. All powers were centered in the Kings but, the rulers did not interfere in the administrations of those regions which accepted their suzerainty. Elaborate administration system was evolved in the regions which were under the direct control of the Gupta Kings. The element of divinity was attached to the kings and they were looked as Gods and God’s representatives. The Kings adopted high-sounding titles such as Maharajadhiraj, Paramabhattaraka, Chakravarti, Paramesvara etc. The King was assisted by a council of Ministers. The minister’s office was almost hereditary. The supreme judicial power was invested in the King

but the Mahadandnayaka carried out the judicial functions. The Gupta Kings created two new classes Sandhivigrahika (Minister of War and Peace) and Kumaramatyas (Offices of the crown Prince). Civil and criminal crimes were demarcated in Gupta Era. The following table presents the list of important officials:

Official	Functions
Mahabaladhikrita	Commander in Chief
Mahadandnayaka	Chief Justice
Mahapratihar	Maintainance of Royal Palaces
Mahasandhivigrahika or Sandhivigrihka	War and Peace
Dandpashika	Head of Police depart- ment
Bhadagaradhikreta	Royal Treasury
Vinaysthitisansthapaka	Education Department
Sarvadhyaksha	Inspector of all central departments
Mahashwapati	Cavalary
Mahamahipalapati	Elephants
Vinayapura	One    who    represented guests to King’s court
Yuktapurusha	Accounts of war booty
Khadyapakika	Royal Kitchen
Ranbhandagarika	Arms and ammunitions stores
Mahanarpati	Infantry

The empire was divided into a number of prov- inces, which were called Bhuktis. Each Bhukti was further divided into Vishaya or Bhoga which was also known as Adhisthana or Pattana. The smaller level was Vithi which referred to a Tehsil. A Bhu- kti was placed under Uparaka and Vishaya under Vishayapati. The village level disputes were solved by the village headmen called gramapati or gram- adhyaksha and this was the smallest administration unit. Kutumbis and Mahattaras are other words used for similar village level officers. Chiefs of the Guilds were called Nagarseths who represented the Guild in the urban trading circles. The Sarthavaha also repre- sented the trading communities. The Prathamakulika represented the crafting communities (artisans) and Prathamakayastha represented Government official

community.Pustapala were junior (district level) record officers. The terms Nivartana, Kulyavapa and Dronavapa were used for Land measurements. The Araghatta or Ghati Yantras were the instruments of irrigation which were known earlier and now became more popular in Gupta Era.

Types of Taxes in Gupta Era #

• Bali: The Bali which was voluntary in Mau- rya era and was given to the King became compulsory in Gupta Era.
• Bhaga: King’s share in all produce of the cultivators. It was 1/6th part of produce.
• Bhoga: Bhoga refers to the tax in kind of gifts, flowers, woods, fruits etc.
• Hiranya: This was the tax paid in cash (Gold). Hiranya means Gold.
• Halivakara: Hal means a Plough, so Hal- ivakra was a kind of tax slab, those who owned a plough used to pay tax.
• Kara: It might have been some irregular tax charged from villagers.
• Shulka: It was custom or toll tax very much similar to Chungi in modern times.
• Udinanga: It might be a social security kind of tax.
• Klipta: It was related to sale and purchase of lands.

Religion in Gupta Era #

Buddhism was generally prevalent in Northern India including Kashmir, Afghanistan and Swat Valley between century 2nd B.C to 2nd century

A.D. Jainism was prevailing but did not attain much popularity. Hinduism never ceased to exist and retained the large share of both the popular as well as Royal Favor. It is evident from the coins of Kadphises II, the Kushana emperor who adopted Hinduism with such a great deal that he repeatedly put images of Shiva on his coins and described himself as a devotee of Shiva. The development of the Mahayana School of Buddhism from the time of Kanishka was in itself a testimony to the reviving power of Brahminical Hinduism. This newer Bud- dhism was very much common to the Hinduism.

The revival of the Sanskrit was first made possible by the western Satraps as evident from the Girnar inscription of Rudradaman, the Saka King who reg- istered his achievements in elaborate Sanskrit. The Gupta Emperors made the Sanskrit fostered by the Satraps in the 4th and 5th century AD.

In Gupta empire, both Buddhism and Hinduism received support and the Gupta Kings were perfectly tolerant about the three religions prevalent at that time, but they were beyond doubt devoted Hindus who were guided by the Brahmin advisors and skilled in the Sanskrit language.

The Jainism remained confined to the merchant communities of western India. Christianity had also arrived in India but it was confined to the Malabar Region.

Changes in Hinduism #

However, Hinduism also underwent some important changes during these times. The sacrifice was replaced by Worship and mediation Devotion and Bhakti. The Shakti cult emerged in the Gupta era, which was based upon the fact that the male can be activated only through union with females. There- fore, this was the beginning of worship of wives / consorts of Indian Gods such as Lakshmi, Parvati, Durga, Kali and other goddesses. The worship of Mother Goddess, which was already prevalent in the Harappan India. It finally got incorporated in to the Hinduism by the Guptas times. By the end of 5th century, Tantrism had also become prominent.

Rise of Occult Practices #

The emergence of Tantrism and worship of female deities also led to occult practices, which kept sexual union in the center. The sexual rites started becoming prominent and now they started taking shape of religious sexuality, which reached its zenith in India by the end of the 6th and 7th century, as evident from numerous temple arts centered on the religious sexuality in that era.

Rise of six schools #

The six schools of Hindu Philosophy viz. Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankya, Yoga, Mimansa and Vedanta started taking definitive shape because of the philosophical debates between the Hindu and

the Buddhists on the question of existance of God, attaining salvation, karma, fate, Birth and Death and rebirth.

GUPTA ART #

Gupta Period is called the “Golden age of India” or the “Classical Age of India” partially due to the unprecedented activities and development in the arts, architecture, sculpture, painting and literature.

Temple art #

The rock cut architecture reached its zenith in the Gupta Era and this era marked the beginning of the Free Standing temple Architecture. Most of the temples built in the Gupta era were carved with representation of Gods (mainly avatara of Vishnu and Lingams) and Goddesses. The most important temple of Gupta era is Dasavatar Temple of Deog- arh, Uttar Pradesh.

Following is a brief description of the temples & Stupas of the Gupta Era:

Dasavatara temple, Deogarh Uttar Pradesh: Dasavatara temple is located in Deogarh Village in Lalitpur town in Uttar Pradesh. The temple was dis- covered by Captain Charles Strahan and was named so by Alexander Cunningham. It depicts the 10 avatara of Vishnu. It is a large and elaborate edifice with typical temple art of Guptas (without Shikhara) and cubical Garbhagriha. This temple has also been linked to the “Sarvatobhadra temple” mentioned in the Vishnudharmottara Purana by several scholars.

Bhitargaon Temple: Bhitagaon Temple is located in Kanpur District of Uttar Pradesh. It is the oldest remaining Hindu temple, and was built in the Gupta Era in 6th century.

Dhamekha Stupa: The Dhamekha stupa is located at Sarnath, 13 km away from Varanasi. It marks the deer park or Rishipattana where Buddha gave his first sermon. As per an inscription dated 1026 AD, recovered from the site, its older name is Dharmachakra Stupa. Archeologist, Alexander Cun- ningham in search of a relic casket bored a vertical shaft through it center down to the foundation and at a depth of around 91 centimeter he found a slab with an inscription…..Ye Dharma Hetu Prabhava Hetu….. written in Brahmi script. This inscription is of 6th or 7th century.

Below this, one more stupa made of mauryan bricks has been found which gives in indication that Ashoka might have commissioned it.

Other Temples #

Other temples of the Gupta Era are as follows:

• Vishnu Temple of Tigawa Jabalpur
• Shiva Temple of Bhumara
• Parvati Temple of Nachria Kathura
• Mukund Darra Temple of Kota
• Lakshaman Temple of Raipur
• Shiva Temple of Koh.
• Bhitari Temple at Ghazipur

Salient features of the Gupta Temples

In Gupta period, the basic characteristic elements of the Indian temple consisting of a square sanctum sanctorum and a pillared porch had emerged.

The Shikhara was not much prominent in the early Gupta temples but was prominent in later Gupta era. There was a single entrance or mandapa or Porch.

Gupta style temple was modelled on the archi- tectural norms of the Mathura school.

Some Other Notes about Gupta Temples #

• Sanchi temple at Tigwa has a flat roof.
• Dasavatar Temple at Deogarh, Bhitargaon temple and Mahadev Temple at Nachna Kuthar have a square tower of Shikhara.
• Manyar Math at Rajgriha is a circular temple of Gupta Era.
• Main style of temple architecture i.e. Nagara style and Dravida style actually began from the Gupta era.
• The earliest stone temple with Shikhara is Dasavatar Temple at Deogarh.
• The Bhitargaon temple at Kanpur is entirely made up of Bricks.

Cave Architecture of Gupta Era: Ajanta Caves #

Out the 31 rock cut cave monuments at Ajanta, five are Chaitya Grihas viz. cave 9, 10, 19, 26 and

29. Cave 26, 27 and 29 are most important as far as development in the Buddhist art is concerned. Cave 26 is a Chaitya Griha which is perhaps the last excavation. It is an elaborate cave. The grandest depiction in all Buddha arts is Mahaparinirvana of Buddha (22 ft). The Ajanta caves are divided into 2 groups.

The first group of caves which were great shrines and monasteries was carved out in the second cen- tury BC, at the magnificent site of Ajanta, which is located in the horse shoe shaped gorge of Waghora river, in Aurangabad district of Maharastra.

The second group of caves was created in 5th and 6th century AD, during Gupta and Post Gupta periods under the rule of the Vaktaka Kings (Gupta Era), with a renewed activity that was richer and more ample.

The Buddha was represented in Human and these representations are found both on the facades and in the interior. Finally, the wall painting, profuse and sensitive, constitutes, no doubt, the most striking artistic achievement of Ajanta.

One of the most prominent and outstanding figures are of humanized serpents, a Nagaraja and Nagini with an attendant figure as finest sculptures in human forms. The Mahaparinirvana of the Buddha, when he finally achieves release from the mortal world, is a profoundly moving scene. The Gupta Period, grand Viharas were excavated which were considerably larger than the earlier Viharas. Every inch of the wall and ceiling space was originally covered with fine paintings, the mural paintings are greatest treasure of the entire heritage of Indian Art.

Inscriptions of Gupta Era #

Gupta era is known for a large number of pillars erected at a number of places. Out of them two most important are

Prayag Prasasti: Also known as (Allahabad Pillar Inscription) of Samudragupta. Composed by Harisena. Very simple and refined Sanskrit in Champu kavya style.

Garuda Pillar: Garuda Pillar refers to the (Mahrauli Pillar Inscription/ Mahrauli Iron Pillar) of Chandragupta II.

Mandsaur Inscription: It is ascribed to Vat- tasbhatta.

Eran Stone Inscription of Samudra Gupta #

Sanchi stone inscription and Mathura stone inscription.

Nalanda Inscription.

Gaya Copper Plate (Speaks of Samudra Gupta). Udayagiri Cave Inscription (Speaks of Chan-

dragupta II & Kumaragupta).

Some Smriti works of Gupta Era: #

• Parashara (100-500 CE)
• Katyanayan (400-600 CE)
• Pitamaha (400-700 CE)
• Pulatsya (300-700 CE)
• Vyasa (200-500 CE)
• Harita (400-700 CE)

Junagarh Rock inscription speaks of Skanda- gupta.

Literature in Gupta Era #

Sanskrit literature reached its climax in the Gupta period. This era is known for equal writing of prose and poetry. Sanskrit became the Ligua franca of India in that era. The final editing of the Rama- yana and Mahabharta took place in Gupta Period. Puranas, Smritis and Dharmashashtra literature was developed in the Gupta period. Yajnavalkya smriti is almost regarded as the official law book of Guptas. Naradasmriti was also written during the Gupta period. All the successive redactions in the Manu’s Dharmashastras were carried out in Gupta Period.

Works of Kalidasa #

Mâlavikâgnimitram #

(Mâlavikâgnimitram) is the Sanskrit play, which depicts Agnimitra as its hero. Malvika is a maid servant whom Agnimitra falls in love. This was known to his chief queen, who imprisions her. Later it was known that Malvika was of a royal birth and she was accepted as queen of Agnimitra. Mâlavikâgnimitram gives account of Rajsuya Yajna of Pushyamitra Shunga, father of Agnimitra.

(Abhijñânasúâkuntalam) #

(Abhijñânaúâkuntalam) is a Sanskrit play which

depicts the story of Dushyanta, king of Hastinapur, and Shakuntala, daughter of the sage Vishwamitra and the apsara Menaka.

(Vikramôrvaúîyam) #

(Vikramôrvaúîyam) is a Sanskrit Drama which depicts the love story of Pururvas a Vedic King and Urvashi. Pururvas is chosen to reflect the qualitites of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. Pururavas is a myth- ological entity representing Sun and Vikramaditya means the “Glory of Sun”.

(Raghuvamsa) #

(Raghuvamsa) is a Sanskrit epic poem that is a long (19 Sargas) narration of genealogy of Lord Rama’s Raghu Vamsa beginning with King Dileep up to Agnivarna.

Kumârasambhava #

Kumârasambhava is an epic poem which has

17 sargas, of which only 8 are accepted as his authorship. Kumara or prince is Kartikeya and it refers to birth of Kartikeya, son of shiva and Parvati after a lot of Tapasya to win Shiva who had already won Kamdeva (God of Love). Kartikeya later killed Tarakasur demon who was blessed that he would not be killed by any other than son of Shiva and Parvati.

Ritusamhara #

Ritusamhara is again a mini epic poem in Sanskrit which has 6 Sargas. These Sargas refer to 6 seaosns (Ritu) viz, Grisma (Summer) , varsha (Rains), Sharad (Autumn), Hemanta (Cool), Sisira (Winter) and Vasantha (Spring). It mentions the feelings, emotions and experiences of lovers in 6 seasons. Ritusamhara is considered to be the earliest work of Kalidasa.

Meghdootam #

Meghdootam means a messenger of Clouds. It’s a poem with 11 stanzas. The theme of Meghaduta is a Yaksha, who is subject of Lord Kubera (King of Wealth). His wife is waiting for him at Mount Kaliash. Kubera at some place in central India exiled the Yaksha and he wishes to send his message to his wife. For that, he convinces a cloud to take his mes- sage and pass it on to his wife. The poem narrates about the beautiful sights and visual perceptions he

would come across while going northwards to take this message to his wife.

The true beauty and grandeur of the literature in Gupta Era can be seen in the kavyas. The greatest among all the names is Kalidasa who lived in 4th century CE and was contemporary of Chandragupta

II. His earliest production was Ritusamhara. But ear- liest drama was Malvikagnimitram. Meghdootam is pioneer Dutakavya in Sanskrit literature. Kumaras- ambhava and Raghuvamsa have the epic grandeur. Kumarasambhava deals with the union of Shiva and Parvati and birth of their son Kartikeya who later destroyed Tarakasur.

Taghuvamsa described the life and career of 28 kings of Raghu Dynasty which included Rama. The Prakrit Poem Setubandha is believed to have been written/ revised by Kalidasa for king Pravarsena. Malvikagnimitra, Vikramovarshiyam and Abhijanan-Shakuntalam are three plays penned by Kalidasa. Please note that Kalidasa’s style was imitated by Ceylon King Kumaradasa who has writ- ten Janakiharana. Kalidasa wrote Malvikagnimitra which accounts the celebration of Vasantotsava (Spring festival).

Bhâravi #

Bhâravi is best known for Kiratarjuniya, written around 550 CE. Kirat is Shiva who speaks to arjuna in for form of a mountain dwelling hunter. This epic style Kavya is considered to be among the greatest works in Sanskrit which is known for complexity of the Sanskrit.

Bhatti #

Bhatti or Batsabhatti is best known for Bhattika- vya which is also known as Ravanavadha and was written in the 7th century CE.

Magha #

Sisupala-vada was written by Magha in 7th cen- tury AD. It is one of the 6 Sanskrit Mahakavyas. It was inspired by the works of Kalidasa, Bharavi and Dandin, all of them, as the author says but surpasses Bharavi in his style and wordplay.

Sudraka #

Mrichhakatika means a “little clay cart’. It is a Sanskrit play written by Shudraka in the 2nd century

AD. Arthur W. Ryder translated it in 1905 as The Little Clay Cart. It’s a play full with romance, sex, court politics and comedy. It depicts the story of a poor man, Charudatta with a nagarvadhu Vasant- sena. The play seems to be a reworked version of Daridracharudatta, another play. Sudraka seems to be an Abhira King Indranigupta who used Shudraka as his pen name.

There is a description of a civil court in Mrich- hakatika, whose headquarters were at Nalanda.

Vishakhadatta #

We know about only two plays of Vishakhadatta viz. Mudrarakasasa and the Devichandraguptam. Out of them Mudrarakasasa is the only surviving play. Devichandraguptam is survived in fragments only. Mudrarakshasha means “Ring of the Demon”. It narrates the ascent of Chandragupta Maurya to throne. Rakshasha is the last Minister of Nandas who is lured in Chandragupta’s side, by Chanakya.

Dandin #

Dandin had written Kavyadarshana and Dasaku- marcharita. He lived in Kanchi and is best known for Dasakumarcharita “The Tale of the Ten Princes” which depicts the adventures of 10 princes. Dasa- kumarcharita was first translated in 1927 as Hindoo Tales and The Adventures of the Ten Princes.

Bhartrihari #

Bhartrihari was a fifth century Sanskrit author who wrote Vakyapadiya , a treatise on Sanskrit Grammar and Satakatraya which is also known as Nitishatak and has 100 verses on philosophy. Batr- ihari seems to be a King but many scholars say that he was not a king but a courtier serving the king.

Ishwar Krishna #

His main work is Sankyakarika. It was a com- mentary on Sankya Philosophy.

Vyasa #

Vyasa has written Vyasabhasya, it was a com- mentary on Yoga philosophy.

Vatsyayana #

Vatsyayana was the author of Nyaya Sutra Bhashya, which was the first commentary on Gau-

tama’s Nyaya Sutras. Kamasutra is a treatise on Human Sexual behavior and makes the part of the Kamashashtra. The first transmission of the Kama Shashra is attributed to Nandi, the bull of Shiva, as per the traditions. The Nandi bull is Shiva’s doorkeeper and he overheard the lovemaking of the Gods and recorded his utterances, for benefit of humankind. However, Kama sutra seems to be the first treatise on the principles / advices in sexuality.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN GUPTA ERA #

The Gupta era is known for tremendous devel- opment in the development of astronomy, astrology, mathematics and metallurgy. The 230 foot high Mahrauli pillar speaks of the well developed met- allurgy in that era which has not rusted in last 15 centuries. The coins of Gupta era were finely struck and engraved.

Aryabhatta #

Aryabhatta was the legendary mathematician of the Gupta Era. He wrote Aryabhattiya at the age of 23 years and later, Arya- Siddhanta. He worked on the approximation for pi to 3.1416. In trigonometry, he concluded for a triangle, the result of a perpen- dicular with the half-side is the area. He also worked on the motions of the solar system and calculated the length of the solar year to 365.8586805 days. Aryabhatta lived in Kusumpur in Pataliputra.

Contributions of Aryabhata (476 AD) #

Aryabhata is the author Aryabhattiya which sketches his mathematical, planetary, and cosmic theories. This book is divided into four chapters:

• The astronomical constants and the sine table.
• Mathematics required for computations.
• Division of time and rules for computing the longitudes of planets using eccentrics and epicycles.
• The armillary sphere, rules relating to prob- lems of trigonometry and the computation of eclipses.

Aryabhata took the earth to spin on its axis. This idea appears to have been his innovation. He also considered the heavenly motions to go through

a cycle of 4.32 billion years. Here, he went with an older tradition, but he introduced a new scheme of subdivisions within this great cycle. Accord- ing to the historian Hugh Thurston, Not only did Aryabhata believe that the earth rotates, but there are glimmerings in his system (and other similar systems) of a possible underlying theory in which the earth (and the planets) orbits the sun, rather than the sun orbiting the earth. The evidence is that the basic planetary periods are relative to the sun. That Aryabhata was aware of the relativity of motion is clear from this passage in his book “Just as a man in a boat sees the trees on the bank move in the opposite direction, so an observer on the equator sees the stationary stars as moving precisely toward the west.”

Aryabhatta has given lot of references of Suryasidhanta. He had developed instruments like chakra yantra (disk instrument), Gola yantra (type of armillery sphere) and shadow instruments.

Aryabhatta deduced that earth is a rotating sphere the stars do not move, it is the earth that rotates. Its diameter is 1,050 yojanas. Its circumference is therefore 1050 × 13.6 x ð = 44,860 km.

Aryabhatta also deduced that: “The moon eclipses the sun, and the great shadow of the earth eclipses the moon.”

Varahamihira #

Varahamihira lived in Ujjain and was one of the nine jewels (Navaratnas) of the court of Chan- dragupta II. He wrote Panchasiddhantaka, the five treatises on astronomy (not astrology). It summarises five earlier astronomical treatises, namely the Surya Siddhanta, Romaka Siddhanta, Paulisa Siddhanta, Vasishtha Siddhanta and Paitamaha Siddhantas.

Gupta Era: Other Important Obsrvations #

The Mathura school of sculpture has represented the phases of transition from the Kushan period to Gupta Period. Most of the earliest Gupta sculptures are from Mathura school. This school reached its mature phase during the Gupta Period.

The Panchayatan style of Temple, in which the temple had four subordinate shrines on four corners, is seen in its earliest (primitive) form in Dasavatara temple of Deogarh, Lalitpur.

India’s earliest structural temples belong to Gupta period. Temple number 17 at Sanchi is con- sidered to be the earliest structural temple.

One of the most remarkable feature of Gupta Administration was the process of devolution of power. Other features were the office of Sandhivi- grahaka, and systematic provincial administration, much more improved than the Mauryas. However, at the same time, the republics got extinct during the Gupta era.

The Vakataka dynasty, which was contemporary of the Guptas, had never struck their own coins and they used coins of the other contemporaries.

The Kayastha as a new caste of officials had emerged in the Gupta age.

Please note that the later Guptas were not the same Guptas but were actually the feudatories of the imperial Guptas.

THE LATER GUPTAS #

Skandagupta Vikramaditya was the last great Gupta Ruler. He ascended to the throne on 455 AD and is known to have crushed the White Huna Invasion in the first or early years of his reign itself. Twelve year reign till his death in 467 AD was filled with wars with Hunas and this led to weakening the economy of his empire which is evident from the low quality of Coins issued during his and his successor’s reigns.

The white Hunas invaded from the northwest- ern sides in around 455 AD. Skandagupta, who had mature and ripe experience, inflicted upon those barbarians, and gave them such as decisive defeat that India was saved for some two decades. However, in 465 a fresh swarm of nomads again poured across the frontiers and is known to have occupied the Gandhara. After death of Skandagupta in 467 AD, there were repeated attacks on the heart of the dominions and the empire succumbed to the repeated attacks of the foreigners.

Successors of Skandagupta #

Who was successor of Skandagupta is a mystery. The genealogy has been corroborated from four royal seals from Nalanda and one from Bhitari that Puru- gupta succeeded Skandagupta. When Skandagupta

passed away, the empire perished but the dynasty remained. It is thought at Skandagupta could not leave any male capable heir and was succeeded by his half brother Purugupta, who was son of Kumaragupta I and Queen Ananda. The later kings

/ princes were Kumaragupta III, Buddhagupta and Narsihmgupta. In the western provinces of Malwa, the names of rajas Buddhagupta and Bhanugupta are found. They cover the period of around 484 to 510 AD. The death of Buddhagupta is thought to have occurred in around 495 AD. It was followed by the accelerated feudalization of the state structure, and the later of these two princes (or Kings) occupy a dependent position probably subordinate to the Huna Chieftains.

THE HUNA INVASIONS #

The Hunas had poured down from the steppes of Central Asia through the Northwestern passes and devastated the cities of India. These central Asian hordes were in four cardinal directions. They were known as follows:

• Northern Huna – Black Huna
• Southern Huna – Red Huna
• Eastern Huna – Celestial Hunas
• Western Hunas – White Hunas.

The nomad Mongol tribes known as Huns have found first mention in the Bhishma parva of Mahabharta. As per Dr V. A. Smith, the sholkas that mention the Hunas must have been placed after editing in 4th or 5th century AD. In Mahabharta, these tribes have been mentioned as Malechhas and Malechhas included several tribes such as Sakas, Yavanas, Savaras, Savaras, Paundras, Kiratas,Kha- sas, Chivukas, Pulindas, Chinas etc. Practice of Pol- yandry was common in Hunas (several husbands one wife). The Hunas moved westwards and divided into two major streams. One directed towards the valley of Oxus (today known as Amu Darya, a boundary between Iran and Central Asia and in Indian texts known as Vaksu) and another towards Volga River (Westwards towards Europe). The latter are thought to have poured into Eastern Europe and forced the Goths to the south and causing the Gothic wars, indirectly. Hunas filled the land between Volga and Danube but they could not make full use of their

advantageous position. The Hunic Empire in Europe was finished within 20 years by a fresh swarm of barbarians from Northern Asia.

However, the Asiatic domain of the Hunas lasted a bit longer. In Persia (Iran), the former are known to have attacked the Sassanid King of Persia, Peroz I and captured him. Peroz I was killed in the hands of Hunas and these Hunas assailed the Kushan Kingdom of Kabul and then from from there poured into India. Around 500 AD, Hunas under a chieftain Ramanila is known to have conquered Gandhara. About Ramanila, we know only through his coins. Later, the Huna Power in Punjab regions is known to have consolidated under Toramana.

Toramana : The early white Huna King #

We know about the 6th century White Huna King Toramana from Kura Inscription in which his name is mentioned as Rajadhiraja Maharaja Toramana Shahi Jaula. He has also been referred in Rajtarangini. The silver coins of Toramana are very much similar to the Gupta Kings. It is thought that Toramana invaded the Gupta Empire with the help of a scion of the Gupta family called Harigupta. Moreover, the feudal structure of the administration was a facilitating factor for Huna’s conquest. Tora- mana acquired the Malwa region by 510 AD and the local prince Bhanugupta was unable check him. Toramana was succeeded by Mihirkula, his son.

Mihirkula: The Huna Tyrrant #

Mihirkula means “one from the Sun Clan”, In Persian, Mihirkula refers to Mehr Gul that also refers to Sun Flower. Mihirkula came to power in 510 AD and was an antibuddhist, known for his cru- elty against the Buddhists. He destroyed the temples and monasteries and was tyrannical to the Buddhists. His reign extended up to Gwalior. His contemporary Gupta King was Narsimhgupta Baladityaraja II.

Narsimhgupta Baladityaraja II is known to have a devout Buddhist. He fought with Mihirkula and was supported by Yasodharman of Malwa in this fight. Mihirkula was defeated, captured by Yas- odharman but was allowed to take refuge in Kashmir where he died shortly afterwards, probably due to a fatal attack by a King of Kashmir. This was the end of White Hunas in India. The year was 528 AD.

Thus, Yashidharman is credited to check the Huna expansion in India.

Who was Yasodharman? #

We know about Yasodharman from the Mandsor Inscription and Bijaygarh Inscription of Bayana near Bharatpur, in Rajasthan, which was erected / created by Vishnuvarhana, son of Yasodharman. He initially is thought to have been friendly with the Guptas but later turns their enemy and carried his victorious arms. However, not many details are known about Yasodharman. He appeared and disappeared quickly, most probably by 540 AD.

After the Hunas were checked, the Gupta Empire destroyed into many parts and several kings appeared in the scene all over north India. By the mid of the 6th century Guptas lost the control over the Magadha also. There were many contemporary dynasties of the Guptas and probably most ancient of them is Maukharis.

Contemporary Dynasties of Guptas #

Maukharis Dynasty #

Maukharis or Mokharis or Mukharas is an ancient family, which seems to be the vassals of Guptas ear- lier. This dynasty was concentrated around modern Uttar Pradesh and a portion of Southern Bihar.

Naga Dynasty #

Naga  family  became  prominent  in  Modern

Uttar Pradesh and Gwalior by third century AD and remained in existence till end of 4th century. The prominent rulers of this dynasty are Nagadatta and Achyuta. The Mathura and Gwalior dominions of the Nagas was annexed to Gupta Kingdom by Samudragupta.

Magha Dynasty #

Magha dynasty ruled around Kaushambi and they were contemporary of Guptas. The rulers such as Nava is known by coins only.

Vaktataka Dynasty #

Vaktaka dynasty was the most important follow up dynasty of the Satavahanas and they ruled in modern Maharastra and Madhya Pradesh. They were contemporary of Guptas. Vindhyashakti, whose name is derived from the Vidhya Mountains, founded Vaktaka dynasty. Pravarasena was an able ruler who is also known to be the real founder of this dynasty. One of the important ruler of this dynasty was Rudrasena I who is mentioned in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription. Rudrasena I was followed by Prathivisena I. During the campaign of Chandragupta II against the western Satraps, Chandragupta II is considered to have alliance of Prathivisena I and later cemented this tie with a marital alliance giving his daughter Prabhavatigupta to Rudrasena II, the prince of Vaktaka Family. The capital of Vaktataka during the reign of Prathivisena and Rudrasena II was Nandivardhana, which is near modern Nagpur.