CURRENT AFFAIRS - 04/03/2024

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CURRENT AFFAIRS – 04/03/20249

CURRENT AFFAIRS – 04/03/20249

Mountains of plastic are choking the Himalayan States

(General Studies- Paper III)

Source : The Hindu

Plastic pollution has become a pervasive issue, extending from the highest peaks of the Himalayas to the depths of ocean trenches.

Microplastics, a byproduct of improper plastic disposal, are found not only in natural landscapes but even within the human body, including the lungs and placenta.

Key Highlights

Microplastics in the Himalayas:
- Microplastics are discovered in the Himalayan mountains, rivers, lakes, and streams.
- Glaciers in the region can trap these particles for extended periods, releasing them into rivers during snowmelt.
- The Indian Himalayan Region, crucial for the subcontinent’s water supply, faces soil and water pollution due to unscientific plastic disposal, adversely affecting biodiversity and freshwater sources for downstream communities.
Drivers of Plastic Waste Crisis:
- The plastic waste crisis in the Indian Himalayan Region is intensified by rapid and unplanned urbanization, shifting production and consumption patterns, and a substantial increase in tourist footfalls.
- Uncontrolled plastic disposal is causing towns in Uttarakhand and other mountain states to drown in plastic waste.
Environmental Impact and Notice by National Green Tribunal:
- Soil and water pollution from plastic waste negatively impact the ecosystem.
- The National Green Tribunal has issued notices to relevant authorities regarding waste dumping in eco-sensitive areas by tourists and commercial establishments, acknowledging the severity of the issue.
- In Assam, at the Ramsar site of DeeporBeel, Greater adjutant storks are resorting to consuming plastic waste in landfills instead of natural prey like fish.
- Manipur reports growing pollution in rivers, such as the Nambul.
Research Findings and Audits:
- Studies, such as the Himalayan Clean-up (2018-21) conducted by the Integrated Mountain Initiative with Zero Waste Himalayas and the National Productivity Council of India’s waste and brand audit, reveal an increasing presence of plastic waste in the Indian Himalayan Region.
- The Himalayan Clean-up (2022) waste audit specifically notes that 92.7% of trash comprised plastic, with 72% being non-recyclable.
Plastic Overshoot Day:
- Annually, there comes a day when the volume of plastic waste surpasses the capacity of waste management systems, termed as Plastic Overshoot Day.
- In 2023, India experienced this disconcerting milestone on January 6, raising concerns about the efficacy of the country’s waste management strategies.
- India holds one of the highest Mismanaged Waste Index (MWI) globally, standing at 98.55%.
- This places India among the top countries with significant gaps between waste management capabilities and plastic consumption. Notably, it follows Kenya, Nigeria, and Mozambique in this alarming index.
Government Claims vs. Actual Recycling Rates:
- The Government of India asserts a commendable 60% recycling rate for plastic waste, as per the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) portal of the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
- However, a statistical analysis conducted by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) utilizing CPCB data contradicts this claim.
- The actual recycling, primarily through mechanical means, stands at a mere 12%.
- Approximately 20% of the plastic waste in India is directed towards end-of-life solutions such as co-incineration, plastic-to-fuel, and road making.
- Astonishingly, the practice of burning 20% of plastic waste is categorized as ‘recycling.’
- This discrepancy raises questions about the actual environmental impact.
- Furthermore, a staggering 68% of plastic waste in India remains unaccounted for, indicating a significant gap in monitoring and management practices.
Regulatory Framework:
- The legal foundation for plastic waste management in India is established by the Solid Waste Management Rules (SWM) 2016, Plastic Waste Management (PWM) Rules 2016, and the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) 2022.
- While the SWM acknowledges the unique requirements of hill areas, these considerations are not adequately incorporated into mandates for both local bodies and Producers, Importers, and Brand Owners (PIBOs).
- Notably, the PWM and EPR frameworks do not recognize the specific needs of hilly regions.
State Initiatives in the Indian Himalayan Region:
- States within the Indian Himalayan Region have taken individual measures to combat plastic waste.
- Himachal Pradesh and Sikkim have enacted special state laws prohibiting the use of plastics.
- Himachal Pradesh implements a buy-back policy for non-recyclable and single-use plastic waste, but despite these efforts, plastic waste littering remains prevalent.
- Sikkim, which banned the use of packaged mineral water from January 2022, grapples with the challenge due to insufficient infrastructure for plastic waste management.
- Mizoram and Tripura have also enacted laws and policies, with varying degrees of success.
Challenges in Waste Segregation:
- The collective mandate under SWM/PWM/EPR emphasizes waste segregation at the source.
- This involves not only separating plastic waste from other materials but also categorizing different types of plastics.
- However, on closer inspection, landfills are found overflowing with mixed waste, leading to leachate causing soil and groundwater pollution, and fumes contributing to air pollution.
- Despite existing policies, a significant amount of recyclable plastic waste remains trapped in landfills.
Local Bodies and Waste Management:
- The responsibility for waste management, from collection to scientific disposal, falls on local bodies under SWM, PWM, and EPR.
- Local bodies can seek assistance from PIBOs to establish and operate plastic waste management systems, as mandated by the EPR.
- However, the devolution of power to local bodies remains a work in progress, with only a few states enacting model by-laws.
- The lack of clarity on collaboration between local bodies and PIBOs is evident, and traditional institutions within the Indian Himalayan Region need inclusion in the definition of local bodies.
- The allocation of funds to traditional institutions under the Swachh Bharat Mission and the Fifteenth Finance Commission further underscores the need for their involvement in waste management initiatives.
Addressing Data Gaps:
- One crucial step in addressing the plastic waste crisis in the Indian Himalayan Region is the thorough plugging of data gaps.
- This involves comprehensive data collection to understand the quantum and quality of waste generated in the states of the region, enabling more informed and effective waste management strategies.
- Resource allocation and support mechanisms must be tailored to the unique ecological sensitivity and fragility of the Indian Himalayan Region.
- This entails recognizing and considering the rich biodiversity of the area, coupled with acknowledging the specific geographical challenges inherent in mountain waste management.
Empowering Local Bodies and Infrastructure Development:
- Immediate attention is required to empower local bodies and establish the necessary infrastructure for waste management.
- This involves creating a conducive environment for waste segregation and fostering public participation through sustained education campaigns.
- The focus should be on building a robust waste management system at the grassroots level.
Geographical Neutrality in Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR):
- Addressing geographical challenges, particularly in mountainous regions, requires a nuanced approach to Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR).
- Higher operational costs in the mountain region should be given due consideration, potentially leading to a higher value for the EPR certificate earned by Producers, Importers, and Brand Owners (PIBOs) in the Indian Himalayan Region compared to other parts of the country.
Convergence of Existing Schemes:
- To optimize resources, there is a need for the convergence of existing schemes, including Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, and grants from the Finance Commission.
- This convergence can be leveraged to create, maintain, and operate the necessary infrastructure for effective waste management.
- Philanthropic contributions and corporate social responsibility funds can play a significant role in addressing the plastic waste issue.
- The Swachh Bharat Kosh Trust, established for channelizing such funds, could be utilized to augment resources for waste management initiatives.
- Additionally, schemes like the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) and the Smart Cities Scheme can work in convergence to promote scientific waste management and make cities in the Indian Himalayan Region plastic-free.

What are Microplastics?

Microplastics are tiny particles of plastic that are generally defined as pieces smaller than 5 millimeters (0.2 inches) in size.
They can be categorized into two main types:
- primarymicroplastics and secondary microplastics.
- Primary Microplastics:
  - These are directly produced as small plastic particles.
  - They can be intentionally manufactured at a microscopic level for various purposes or originate from products that contain microbeads and other tiny plastic components.
  - Examples include microbeads in personal care products like exfoliating scrubs or microfibers released during the washing of synthetic textiles.
- Secondary Microplastics:
  - Secondary microplastics are derived from the breakdown of larger plastic items through processes like weathering, fragmentation, and degradation.
  - Over time, larger plastic items such as bottles, bags, and packaging can break down into smaller and smaller pieces due to exposure to environmental factors like sunlight, heat, and mechanical forces.
- Sources of Microplastics:
  - Plastic Pollution:
    - Improper disposal of plastic waste contributes significantly to the presence of microplastics in the environment.
    - Discarded plastic items break down into smaller particles over time.
  - Microbeads in Personal Care Products:
    - Until recently, many personal care products like facial scrubs and toothpaste contained microbeads, tiny plastic particles added for exfoliation.
    - These microbeads could wash down drains and enter waterways.
  - Synthetic Textiles:
    - Washing clothes made of synthetic fabrics, such as polyester and nylon, releases microfibers into the water.
    - These microfibers are a significant source of microplastics in aquatic environments.
  - Industrial Processes:
    - Certain industrial processes, such as abrasive blasting or the production of plastic pellets, can release microplastics into the surrounding environment.

What is Mismanaged Waste Index (MWI)?

The Mismanaged Waste Index (MWI) is a measure of the gap between a country’s waste management capacity and its plastic consumption.
It is calculated as the ratio of mismanaged waste to total waste, expressed as a percentage.
According to a report by Earth Action, India ranks fourth in the MWI, with 98.55% of generated waste being mismanaged.
Other countries with high MWI include Mozambique (99.8%), Nigeria (99.44%), and Kenya (98.9%).
The MWI is used to determine the date when a country’s plastic waste exceeds its ability to manage it, known as the Plastic Overshoot Day.

A women’s urban employment guarantee act

(General Studies- Paper II)

Source : The Hindu

Reducing gender gaps and promoting women’s empowerment align with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Beyond ethical and constitutional imperatives, evidence suggests that increasing women’s employment rates can serve as a catalyst for economic growth.

Key Highlights

Role of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA):
- MGNREGA, despite operating below its intended capacity, has played a crucial role in granting financial autonomy to women in rural areas.
- Over half of the MGNREGA workforce comprises women, showcasing the program’s impact on rural women’s economic participation.
Urban Challenges in Women’s Employment:
- In contrast, urban realities present distinct challenges for women’s employment.
- Social norms, safety concerns, and limited transportation options hinder urban women from joining the workforce.
- The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) indicates a mere 22.9% women’s employment rate in urban areas during the last quarter of 2023, highlighting substantial unmet demand for employment among urban women.
- Several indicators emphasize the unmet demand for employment among urban women.
- Firstly, the urban unemployment rate is 9%, significantly higher than the rural rate of 4%.
- Secondly, a notable proportion of unemployed urban women actively seek employment, differentiating them from their rural counterparts.
- Furthermore, about 25% of urban women have completed higher secondary education, compared to a mere 5% in rural areas, signifying a pool of untapped potential.
Underutilized Potential and Wastage:
- The low employment rates among urban women not only signify unmet demand but also point to the underutilization and wastage of considerable human potential.
- With a substantial number of educated women in urban areas, there is a missed opportunity for leveraging this talent pool for broader economic development.
To tackle urban unemployment, some states have implemented urban employment programs, and there is early evidence suggesting higher participation rates for women.
- Building on successful initiatives and innovative proposals like the Decentralised Urban Employment and Training Scheme, an idea of a national Women’s Urban Employment Guarantee Act (WUEGA) is introduced.
Key Components of WUEGA:
- The envisioned WUEGA aims for at least 50% (ideally 100%) representation of women in program management roles, emphasizing the inclusion of women in decision-making processes.
- This aligns with the constitutional mandate for decentralization, potentially strengthening local communities’ involvement.
- WUEGA proposes worksites with essential facilities, including childcare centers, recognizing the challenges women face in balancing work and caregiving responsibilities.
- Additionally, work should be available within a 5-km radius, and public transportation should be free for women to ensure accessibility.
- Diverse Employment Opportunities:
  - The proposal suggests a comprehensive list of urban works, such as plantation and harvesting reeds on floating wetlands, with room for local customization through wider consultations.
  - Incentives, like automatic inclusion in welfare boards, can be introduced, serving as resources for maternity entitlements, pensions, and emergency funds.
- Addressing Skills and Mobility Challenges:
  - To address the gap in skills and mobility issues hindering women’s school-to-work transition, the proposal recommends apprenticeships for women college students.
  - This initiative could serve as a channel for women with higher degrees to become program functionaries and stimulate interest in technical courses.
- Information Facilitation Centers:
  - Women who have completed Class 10 could qualify to run Information Facilitation Centers at each urban local body, equipped with computer training facilities.
  - These centers can bridge skill gaps through regular capacity-building initiatives and empower local communities while acting as a single window for grievance registration.
- Empowering through Social Audits:
  - The proposal introduces a social audit unit for WUEGA, comprising at least 50% women staff, for independent program monitoring.
  - This unit would create opportunities for women who have completed Class 12 to engage part-time or full-time, enhancing their job readiness while ensuring transparency and accountability.
- Successful Women-Led Waste Management Initiatives:
  - Drawing inspiration from successful initiatives in Karnataka, where women manage end-to-end waste management in gram panchayats, including operating ‘Swacch’ vehicles, underscores the viability of women-led projects.
  - The success of these initiatives is not only measured in waste management achievements but has also empowered women by facilitating the acquisition of driving licenses.
- Scope of Unemployed Women in Urban Areas:
  - The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) estimates that around 10.18 crore women in the age group of 15-59 in urban areas are currently out of the workforce.
  - When considering those self-employed or in casual labor, the number rises to about 11.65 crore.
  - Assuming a 50% interest rate in a potential women-led urban employment program, the cost of implementing such a scheme, with a daily wage of ₹500 for 150 days a year, would amount to approximately 1.5% of the GDP.
- Economic Implications and Feasibility:
  - The proposal suggests a phased rollout of the program, ensuring periodic assessments of uptake and the nature of the works.
  - The estimated cost, inclusive of material and administrative expenses, is anticipated to be around 2% of the GDP.
  - While acknowledging the economic implications, the benefits of empowering women through such initiatives outweigh fiscal concerns.
  - The proposed women’s urban employment initiative serves as a potential stepping stone towards a broader urban employment program that encompasses all genders.
  - The phased implementation and periodic evaluations are expected to streamline costs, making it a sustainable and scalable solution.
- Shifting from Income Insurance to Income Assurance:
  - The proposal advocates for a paradigm shift from viewing income as insurance to ensuring income certainty, particularly for women.
  - Emphasizing the need for financial assurance, especially for women, aligns with the broader goal of creating inclusive economic opportunities and fostering gender equality.

On the relevance of university rankings

(General Studies- Paper II0

Source : The Hindu

Over the past two decades, global university ranking systems have become a dominant force in higher education ecosystems worldwide, significantly influencing the priorities and policies of many countries.

While some nations invest substantial resources to enhance their universities’ global standing, recent controversies have prompted certain institutions to withdraw from ranking participation.
Amidst these debates, crucial aspects related to the conduct of the ranking companies, including conflicts of interest and data rights, often remain overshadowed.

Key Highlights

Popular Global Ranking Systems:
- The Times Higher Education (THE), Quacquarelli Symonds (QS), Academic Ranking of World Universities (commonly known as the ‘Shanghai Ranking’), and U.S. News & World Report are among the most widely recognized global ranking schemes.
- These systems wield significant influence in shaping higher education policies and priorities on a global scale.
Objectives and Metrics of Ranking Systems:
- A ranking system categorizes higher education institutions based on their achievements in various domains, including teaching, research, reputation, industry-focused research, and collaborative efforts.
- Despite the complexity and contextuality of these activities, ranking systems simplify an institution’s performance in each area into a set of composite indicators.
- These indicators are then amalgamated to generate a consolidated score, forming the basis for the institution’s overall ranking.
Ranking Controversies and University Withdrawals:
- Controversies surrounding the incentives set up by ranking systems and their compatibility with the aspirations of universities have led some institutions globally to withdraw from being ranked.
- These concerns revolve around the potential distortion of priorities and values within the higher education sector due to the influence of rankings.
Neglected Aspects: Conflicts of Interest and Data Rights:
- Amidst the debates over university withdrawals and controversies, two critical aspects often overlooked are conflicts of interest and data rights related to the companies behind ranking systems.
- Addressing these aspects is vital for ensuring transparency, integrity, and fairness in the ranking process.
Critique of Ranking Systems:
- In 2021, Elizabeth Gadd, a research officer at Loughborough University in the U.K., compared the pursuit of higher university rankings to the flawed reliance on Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as the sole measure of a country’s prosperity.
- She argued that like GDP, university rankings oversimplify the multifaceted roles universities play in society by distilling them into a single, unidimensional score.
- Gadd contended that university rankings share a similar limitation in capturing the diverse contributions of universities to society.
Biases and Limitations:
- Experts have identified biases in ranking systems, noting that the highest-ranked universities tend to be old, large, wealthy, research-intensive, science-focused, English-speaking, and located in the Global North.
- Factors like citations and reputation heavily influence research excellence scores in rankings, and instances of arbitrary measures, such as citations, dramatically altering a university’s performance, have been observed.
- Impact of Citations on Rankings:
  - Citations, a key metric in ranking systems, can disproportionately influence a university’s ranking.
  - An example is Bielefeld University’s significant jump in the THE rankings, attributed to a single scholar’s prolific work, which contributed to 20% of the university’s total citations over two years.
  - Reports have surfaced, including a case in Science in 2023, where Saveetha Dental College in Chennai allegedly manipulated citations to significantly improve its ranking.
  - This underscores the potential for universities to manipulate data to enhance their standings in ranking schemes.
- Influence of Hosting THE Summits:
  - Richard Holmes, an expert in ranking systems, analyzedTHE’s regional rankings in 2016 and noted apparent favoritism towards universities hosting important THE summits.
  - He suggested that changes favoring these universities were influenced, among other things, by tweaks in how the ranking system counted citations.
- Incentives and Riches for Highly Ranked Universities:
  - The critique emphasizes the value accorded to ranking schemes, which incentivizes universities to manipulate metrics for better rankings.
  - Highly-ranked universities often reap financial and reputational rewards, creating an environment conducive to strategic actions to boost their standing.
- Private Enterprises and University Consultations:
  - Most entities responsible for compiling and publishing university rankings are private enterprises.
  - Concerns have been raised regarding instances where these entities engage in consulting with universities to help them achieve better rankings in their own systems.
- Influence on Rankings:
  - A 2021 study by Igor Chirikov at the University of California, Berkeley, highlighted that universities with frequent contracts related to ranking entities, specifically QS, experienced significant increases in their rankings.
  - The study, focusing on 28 Russian universities between 2016 and 2021, revealed a notable impact on positions and faculty-student ratio scores.
  - Elite Memberships and Special Networks:
    - Entities like THE (Times Higher Education) offer exclusive memberships, such as the “World 100 Reputation Network,” designed for institutions ranked in the top 200 globally.
    - These networks aim to facilitate the sharing of strategies among top-ranked institutions to maintain their status.
  - Boycotts by Prominent Institutions:
    - In response to the growing concerns over conflicts of interest, several prominent institutions have taken a stand against traditional ranking systems.
    - In 2022, Harvard and Yale Universities led a boycott against the U.S. News & World Report’s rankings.
    - The boycott was driven by a perceived misalignment between the career goals envisioned for law students and the incentives created by the ranking system.
    - Similarly, Utrecht University in The Netherlands withdrew from THE world rankings in 2023 for similar reasons.
  - Boycotts by Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs):
    - In India, several prestigious Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) have also joined the movement against traditional rankings by boycotting certain ranking systems, echoing concerns about conflicts of interest and the impact on institutional priorities.
  - Compromising Data Security:
    - Participating in ranking exercises often entails universities providing ranking agencies with access to their data, raising concerns about compromising data security.
    - Universities may be required to agree to terms and conditions that grant ranking agencies extensive rights over their data.
    - Example: Terms and Conditions of THE Platform:
      - In the case of THE (Times Higher Education), universities using their platform and related services must agree to additional terms and conditions.
      - Point 6 of these terms grants THE a broad and perpetual license over the data provided by universities.
      - This includes the right to use, reproduce, modify, adapt, and distribute the data globally without seeking future permission.
      - The language in the terms suggests that universities are required to give THE a free and permanent right over their data, which includes details of institutional, industry, and research incomes, as well as information about patents.
      - This broad grant of rights, especially without the need for future permission, raises concerns about the control universities have over their sensitive information.
    - UN University’s Statement on Rankings:
      - The UN University’s statement on ‘Global University Rankings’ emphasizes the recognition that while rankings may drive improvements in some universities, they also incentivize perverse and harmful behaviors.
      - This includes concerns about data security and the long-term negative effects on the higher education system.
      - There is a particular concern expressed regarding public universities agreeing to such wide-ranging rights that may compromise the security and control over their data.
      - The UN University’s statement underscores the need for caution and scrutiny regarding the terms universities accept in participating in ranking exercises.

Chinese ‘nuclear’ cargo heading to Pakistan seized

(General Studies- Paper II and III0

Source : The Hindu

Indian customs at Mumbai Port have seized two advanced Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines manufactured by GKD, Italy.

The machines were being shipped from China and were bound for the port of Karachi, Pakistan.
The seizure occurred in January, and the items, considered dual-use, remain in Indian custody.

Key Highlights

Details of the Seized Consignment:
- The consignment, shipped on January 9 via the merchant vessel CMA CGM Attila (a Malta-flagged vessel from Shekou Port, China), was en route to Karachi Port, with Cosmos Engineering listed as the consignee.
- Upon reaching Nhava Sheva Port (JNPT) Mumbai on January 22, 2024, Indian customs officials seized the consignment based on intelligence inputs related to potential proliferation concerns involving Pakistan and China.
- Sources with knowledge of the matter suggest that the seized CNC machines could be instrumental in manufacturing critical parts for Pakistan’s missile development program.
- The equipment’s dual-use nature raises concerns about its potential contribution to military capabilities.
- A team of experts from the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has reportedly inspected the seized consignment.
Cosmos Engineering has been on the Customs watchlist since March 2022 when it was involved in attempting to procure ‘thermo-electric instruments’ from an Italian firm.
Concerns Over Missile Technology Trade:
- In February 2020, China was allegedly attempting to supply an autoclave to Pakistan, mis-declared as an ‘industrial dryer.’
- The autoclave, capable of contributing to Pakistan’s missile program, was seized from a Hong Kong-flagged Chinese ship named Dai Cui Yun.
- The incident raised concerns about potential violations of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR).
- Autoclave Notified in SCOMET List:
  - The autoclave, falsely declared as an ‘industrial dryer,’ is listed in the SCOMET (Special Chemicals, Organisms, Materials, Equipment, and Technologies) list.
  - The item was concealed in the ship’s cargo and discovered during its transit through Gujarat’s Kandla port.
- S. Sanctions in June 2023:
  - In June 2023, the U.S. Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) imposed sanctions on three Chinese companies – General Technology Limited, Beijing Luo Luo Technology Development, and Changzhou Utek Composite.
  - These companies were sanctioned for their alleged involvement in supplying missile-related items to Pakistan’s ballistic missile program.
  - The U.S. State Department emphasized that the sanctions were part of global non-proliferation efforts.
- China’s Role in Pakistan’s Nuclear Power Plants:
  - China has been actively assisting Pakistan in constructing civil nuclear power plants.
  - This includes support for four 300 MWe nuclear power plants at Chashma and two 1,000 MWe plants in Karachi.
  - Furthermore, a memorandum of understanding was signed between Pakistan’s Atomic Energy Commission and China’s National Nuclear Corporation to build a 1.2 GW nuclear power plant at an estimated cost of $4.8 billion.

What will Gaganyaan change for India?

(General Studies- Paper III)

Source : The Hindu

Prime Minister Narendra Modi unveiled the final shortlist of candidates for the Gaganyaan mission on February 27.

The mission is a significant undertaking by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) with the goal of sending Indian astronauts into low-earth orbit for a short duration.
This marks a crucial step in India’s foray into human spaceflight, requiring testing of various technologies and demonstrating the nation’s proficiency in their production and application.

Key Highlights

Mission Objectives:
- Demonstration Mission:
  - Gaganyaan serves as a demonstration mission to test and validate the technologies essential for human spaceflight, considered one of the most complex forms of space exploration.
- Technological Proficiency:
  - The mission aims to showcase India’s capabilities in developing, qualifying, and utilizing the technologies required for human spaceflight.
- Ambitious Goals:
  - Beyond Gaganyaan, Prime Minister Modi directed ISRO to achieve ambitious goals, including establishing an indigenous space station by 2035 and landing an Indian on the moon by 2040.
- Technological Challenges:
  - Human spaceflight involves intricate technological challenges, and the success of Gaganyaan is crucial to India’s standing as a reliable launch provider and a player in sophisticated interplanetary missions.
- Strategic Divisions and Coordinating Body:
  - The Indian government has designated two new entities to handle space-related responsibilities – New Space India Ltd. (NSIL) focuses on commercializing space technologies, while the Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre (IN-SPACe) is responsible for authorizing space activities across sectors.
  - The Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC) was established by ISRO to oversee and coordinate the Gaganyaan mission.
- Components of Gaganyaan Mission:
  - Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM-3):
    - The LVM-3, formerly known as GSLV Mk-III, serves as the launch vehicle for the Gaganyaan mission.
    - It is a three-stage rocket, featuring two solid-fuel boosters in the first stage, two liquid-fuelled Vikas 2 engines in the second stage, and the CE-20 indigenous cryogenic engine in the third stage.
    - The third stage employs the CE-20 cryogenic engine, using liquid hydrogen as fuel and liquid oxygen as the oxidiser.
  - Orbital Module:
    - Weighing 8.2 tonnes, the orbital module is launched into low-earth orbit by the LVM-3 rocket.
    - It comprises the crew module and the service module.
  - Crew Module Features:
    - Can accommodate up to three astronauts for a week.
    - Equipped with parachutes for safe descent.
    - Houses the Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) for temperature control, breathing environment, waste disposal, and more.
    - Includes the Crew Escape System for emergency astronaut evacuation in case of rocket malfunction during ascent.
  - Service Module:
    - Contains the propulsion system responsible for raising the orbital module’s altitude post-separation from the rocket and propelling it back towards Earth.
  - Crew:
    - Astronaut Candidates: Prashant Nair, Ajit Krishnan, Angad Pratap, and Shubanshu Shukla.
    - All are officers in the Indian Air Force (IAF), with group captains and a wing commander.
    - Candidates underwent training at the IAF’s Institute of Aerospace Medicine and advanced training in Russia.
  - Gynoid ‘Vyommitra’:
    - A feminine robot designed to accompany the crew in the crew module.
    - Equipped with sensors to monitor radiation and weightlessness effects, as well as conditions within the capsule.
    - Capable of performing various tasks and sounding alarms in emergencies.
  - Gaganyaan Mission Development:
    - Technology Realization:
      - ISRO had achieved many underlying technologies for Gaganyaan before its official approval by the Union Cabinet in 2018.
      - Post-approval, ISRO focused on human-rating these technologies, ensuring their reliability met the necessary thresholds for human spaceflight.
    - Key Experiments:
      - Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE – 2007):
        
        A satellite descended from 635 km altitude to splash into the Bay of Bengal.
      - Crew-module Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment (CARE – 2014):
        
        A prototype module launched onboard an LVM-3 rocket.
      - Tested separation mechanism, heat shield, braking system, parachutes, floatation devices, and retrieval procedures.
      - October 2022 Test:
        
        Crew module launched on a small rocket, ejected using an ’emergency abort’ command, and tested descent and retrieval.
      - Procurement and Domestic Development:
        
        ISRO initially stated the lack of domestic capability to manufacture the crew module, opting to procure it from outside.
        
        Hoped to source Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) technologies abroad but developed them internally due to unsuccessful sourcing.
        
        Major components, including engines and rocket stages, underwent rigorous tests, simulations, and quality control exercises.
        
        ISRO completed testing four CE-20 engines for a total of 8,810 seconds, replicating flight conditions.
      - Gaganyaan’s Strategic Significance:
        
        Space Sector Reforms:
        
        Birth of NSIL and IN-SPACe: Accompanied by the establishment of New Space India Ltd. (NSIL) and Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre (IN-SPACe).
        
        Wide-Ranging Reforms: Spanning the National Geospatial Policy 2022, Indian Space Policy 2023, and Telecommunications Act 2023.
        
        Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): Cabinet approval for 49% to 100% automatic FDI in space services and spaceflight on February 21, boosting India’s space startups.
        
        Geopolitical Context:
        
        Evolving ‘Space Race’: Reflects a global trend with countries expanding their space capabilities, including lunar exploration and beyond.
        
        Geopolitical Boundaries Extended: The ‘space race’ extends geopolitical boundaries into outer space, emphasizing the human presence in space and on the moon.
        
        Gaganyaan’s Objectives:
        
        Self-Sufficiency: Establishes India’s self-sufficiency in sending humans to space, reducing reliance on expensive contracts with foreign launch services.
        
        Strategic Control: Allows India to control timelines and align with broader efforts to assert its presence in space exploration.
        
        Representation in the Final Frontier: Contributes to India’s representation in space, aligning with global endeavors in scientific, commercial, and exploratory missions.