INTRODUCTION #
The Carnatic war which was the effect of the French-British rivalry in Europe, established the politico-military presence in the sub-continent. The weakening and breaking down of the Mughal Authority, was marked by the rise of numerous native state, all hedging against each other for more power and resources. The British forces became the ultimate gurantor of stability of severity of the native states thus began to emerge as the key player in India.
The political history of the British in India begins with the Carnatic Wars. The first and third Carnatic wars were just the Indian theatres of the larger France and British rivalry in rest parts of the World.
Reasons of Wars #
Commercial and maritime quarrels in the initial decades of the 18th century gradually drew the France and England into open hostilities.
The whole of south was divided into small parts, and numerous nawabs and rajas claimed their own sovereignty. So British and French could support rivals.
First Carnatic War 1744 #
In 1744, a war was declared between France and England. The First Carnatic war was the Indian theatre of War of the Austrian Succession that was fought between the Kingdom of Prussia, Spain, France, and Bavaria, Sweden etc. on one side and Habsburg Monarchy, England, Dutch Republic,
Russia on the other side. This war continued from 1740 to 1748 and finally ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748).
The First Carnatic war in India began with the appearing of a British Fleet on the Coromandel Coast, in 1745. The Judicious French Governor Dupleix induced the Nawab of Arcot for interven- tion but the Nawab opted for an impartial policy.
British initially captured a few French ships, the French called for backup from Mauritius. In 1746, a French squadron arrived. In September 1746, the French captured the Madras almost without any opposition and the British were made prisoners of war. Clive was also one of those Prisoners.
The Nawab of Arcot had adopted the impar- tial policy but to drive the British out of Madras, marched with 10,000 soldiers to the St Fort George but was defeated. The negotiations about the fate of Madras started but these negotiations took too much time to let Clive escape from the Fort St. George to Fort St David, some twenty miles to the south.
In 1748 an English fleet arrived under Admiral Boscawen, and attempted the siege of Pondicherry. At the same time the Land Force of the company was led by Major Stringer Lawrence.Major Stringer Lawrence successfully foiled an attempted French surprise at Cuddalore, but subsequently was cap- tured by a French cavalry patrol at Ariancopang (Ariankuppam) near Pondicherry and kept prisoner till the peace Treaty of Aixla- Chapelle.
Major Stringer Lawrence was the first Com- mander-in-Chief, India, of the East India Company.
Some people also call him the “Father of Indian Army”.
In October 1748, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle restored the peace between France and England and this also brought an end to the First Carnatic War. Madras was restored to the English for some territories (Louisburg) in North America.
Second Carnatic War 1749-54 #
In 1748, the Nizam of Hyderabad Asaf Jah I died and there was a civil war for succession broke out. This Civil war of succession is known as Sec- ond Carnatic War.
In 1751, Robert Clive led British troops to capture Arcot. This is famous as Siege of Arcot. In this Clive was successful and English protégé, Mohammed Ali Khan Walajah, was recognized as Nawab of Arcot. The war ended with the Treaty of Pondicherry, signed in 1754. Muhammad Ali Khan Walajah was recognized as the Nawab of Arcot.
The Siege of Arcot (1751) was a heroic feat. The Siege of Arcot had made Clive a national hero in England. The Prime Minister Pitt, the elder described him as the “heaven-born general.”
The end of the second Carnatic war brought a disaster for Dupleix. The French Government recalled him and Dupleix was compelled to embark for France on 12 October 1754. He had not saved any money and the government did not support him. His wife died 2 years later and the ruined Dupleix died in 1763 in utter poverty and obscurity. His successors failed in cherishing the dream of a French Empire in India.
Third Carnatic War 1757-63 #
The conflict between the France and England got renewed in 1756 in Europe, in the form of Seven Years War, which is coterminous with the Third Carnatic War. The Third Carnatic war was a local version of the Seven Years war in Europe.
The Third Carnatic War put an end to the French ambitions to create a colonial empire in India.
The British Forces were able to capture the French Settlements at Chandranagar in 1757. The French forces in south were led by Comte De Lally. The British forces under Sir Eyre Coote, defeated
the French in the Battle of Wandiwash in 1760 and besieged Pondicherry.
After Wandiwash, the French capital of Pondi- cherry fell to the British in 1761. When the Seven Years war ended with the war concluded with the signing of the 1763, Treaty of Paris.
As per parts of this treaty, the Chandranagar and Pondicherry was returned to France. The French were now allowed to have trading posts in India but forbade French traders from administering them. The Government of France also agreed to support British client governments. This was the last nail in the coffin of the French ambitions of an Indian Empire. British were now the dominant power in India.
The Lord Clive Era #
Due to the weak Mughals, the Viceroys and nobles as expected rose and the prominent provinces of the Mughals became independent. Three of them are important.
- Oudh became independent under Saadat Ali Khan.
- Bengal & Orissa became independent under Murshid Quli Khan.
- Deccan (Hyderabad) became independent under Asaf Jah-I. He was the first to declare himself independent.
The later Mughals were practically dependent upon these nobles and to have their loyalty, com- promised on the conditions they were ruling their respective territories.
THE NAWABS OF BENGAL #
When Farrukhsiyar was Mughal Emperor at Delhi, the name of Makhsusabad was changed to Murshidabad and Nawab Murshid Quli Khan became the de-facto ruler of Bengal and Orissa, however, he kept on working “for” decrepit Mughals.
Murshid Quli Khan was the First Nawab of Bengal whose reign in this capacity was from 1717 to 1727. As soon as Farrukhsiyar acknowledged his changing the name of Makhsusabad to Murshidabad he released Zurbe Murshedabad coin, in his own new mint. He kept on sending annual tributes to the Mughals but was the real ruler of Bengal. He
died in 1727. Before he died, he had appointed his maternal grandson Sarfaraz Khan as heir apparent, who abdicated the seat for his father Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan, who became the second Nawab of Bengal.
From 1727 till 1740, Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan remained the Nawab. His tenure is known for reorganization of the Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. In 1733, he had merged Bihar in Bengal and divided the entire region into 4 administrative regions viz. Central Division, Dhaka Division, Bihar Division and Orissa Division. During his time a noble Jagat Seth, who was a banker in Calcutta rose to prom- inence.
After he died in 1739, he was followed by his son Sarfaraz Khan, who within a year was defeated by one Alivardi Khan and killed in a bloody bat- tle at Giria. From 1740 to 1756, Ali Vardi Khan remained the Nawab of Bengal as Mahabat Jung. In 1756, when Alivardi died he was succeeded by Siraj ud-Daulah. Siraj ud-Daulah was the last sovereign Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
BLACK HOLE OF CALCUTTA 1756 #
The young Nawab Siraj was wary of the grow- ing intervention of the British in the affairs of the province. The ungovernable temper of Siraj led to a rupture with the English within two months after his accession. He marched upon Calcutta with a large army and laid the siege of the site of the Fort William.
Many British fled down the river in their ships and the remainder 146 people were compelled to surrender. These people were stuffed for a night in a room of 18 square feet, with only two windows and 123 people (Including natives) got suffocated to death. This is called the Black Hole of Calcutta (1756), which is still doubtful on account of the number of the perished.
This news reached Madras, when Clive had already come from England. He led the troops and arrived in Bengal. After a small skirmish, the peace was restored.
Soon afterwards, Clive breached the neutrality and captured the French settlement of Chandranagar. Acting on the tactics which Clive had learnt in South
from Dupleix, he contacted Mir Jafar and other people in the court of Nawab and offered him the throne if he deceives Siraj-Ud-Daulah. In May 1757, the British Calcutta Council made a secret treaty with Mir Jafar, promising to place him on the throne of Bengal. William Watts, the chief of the British factory at Kasimbazar plotted this conspiracy.
The Traitors of PlasseyThe faithful commanders of Nawab were Mir Madan and Mohan Lal.” The right arm of the army was commanded by Rai Dur- labh, Center by Yar Lutuf Khan and Left close to British by Mir Jafar, all traitors. The Nawab’s army had attacked vigorously in the beginning but Clive kept his ammunitions in reserve and soldiers safe under a groove / embankment. There was a rainfall, which led the ammunition and powder of Nawab drenched while the British used tarpaulins to protect their ammunition.When the Nawab’s army realized that the British ammunition is rendered ineffective Mir Madan asked the cavalry to take charge but the next Mir Jafar, but he did not turn up. The traitors of Battle of Plassey were as follows:” Mir Jafar : He became the first titular Nawab of Bengal paving the way for British Empire in India.” Jagat Set : A Marwari Banker. After 9 years of the Battle of Plas- sey, the entire family of Jagat Seth was beheaded by Mir Kasim.” Omi Chand or Amir Chand : He tried to get 5% from the treasure after Mir Jafar becomes Nawab but was deceived by the British by fake treaty and this shock was enough to plunge him into mental retardation. He survived for some 10 years and died anonymously.” Manik Chand : This was an officer in Calcutta. Rai Durlab : He was the treasurer of Nawab. Ghaseti Beghum : The rich maternal aunt of Nawab.
BATTLE OF PLASSEY (23 JUNE 1757) #
British marched out to the grove of Plassey, about 100 Kilometers north of Calcutta, at the head of 1000 Europeans and 2000 sepoys, with 8 pieces of artillery. The Bengal viceroy’s army numbered 35,000 foot and 15,000 horse, with 50 cannon.
On 23 June 1757, the Battle of Plassey was fought between the forces of Siraj Ud Daulah, and his French support troops and the troops of the Brit- ish East India Company, led by Robert Clive. This
event was also a part of the Seven Years War. In the battle of Plassey the forces of Nawab were defeated and Nawab fled the scene on a Camel along with his 2000 horsemen. He went first to Murshidabad and then to Patna by boat, but was eventually pursued by Mir Jafar’s soldiers. On 2 July 1757, Siraj-Ud- Daulah was executed under orders from Mir Miran, son of Mir Jafar.
Post Battle, Mir Jafar was placed as a titular Nawab of Bengal in 1757. The British extracted enormous sums from Mir Jafar as the price of his elevation. Mir Zafar paid 1 Crore 77 Lakh Rupees as compensation for the attack on Calcutta to the company and the traders of the city. The East India Company claimed 1.5 Crore. Clive was prom- ised 280,000 Rupees. The long cherished dream of becoming Nawab of Bengal of Mir Jafar was achieved. But he could not bear the extortionist policies of the British for long. When he realized that British expectations were limitless he tried to wriggle out of their grip. For this he took the help of the Dutch.
Battle of Chinsura 1759 #
Mir Jafar opened secret negotiations with the representatives of the Dutch East India Company to bring troops against the British. The Dutch, seeing an opportunity to enhance the influence sent a force at Chinsurah, but they were defeated by the British army. The battle was fought both in sea and land. The Victories British overthrew the titular Nawab Mir Jafar and his placed his son-in-law Mir Kasim as Nawab of Bengal.
Clive’s Jagir #
Mir Jafar had made a grant to the Company of the Zamindari over an extensive tract around the Calcutta which is now known as 24 Pargana. This Twenty-Four Parganas included the country imme- diately surrounding Calcutta, except city.
In 1757, the East India Company obtained the Zamindari rights over this territory so now it could collect the cultivator’s rent, subject to tax paid to the Nawab as the representative of the Mughal Emperor. In 1759 the land tax was granted by the emperor in favor of Clive, who thus became the landlord of his own boss i.e. the East India Company. It was known
as Clive’s Jagir. The Clive’s Jagir became a matter of inquiry in England. The Clive’s claim to the property as feudal suzerain over the Company was contested by the company in 1764. In 1765, a new deed was issued, which confirmed this Jagir for 10 years. This Jagir received the sanction of the Mughal Emperor in 1765 and it gave the absolute validity to the original Jagir. However, it was transferred to the company as a perpetual property. Annual grant of around 2.22 Lakh Rupees was paid to Clive from 1765 till 1774, when he shot himself to death. After that whole proprietary rights were reverted to the company. This was the climax of Clive’s career. In 1758, he was appointed by the court of directors as the first governor of all the company’s settlements in Bengal.
Mir Kasim #
After the Battle of Chinsura, the British deposed Mir Jafar and placed his son-in-law Mir Kasim as Nawab of Bengal. Mir Kasim, soon began to show a will of his own, and to cherish dreams of inde- pendence. He eventually shifted his capital from Murshidabad to Munger in Bihar where he raised an independent army.
Problems with Farman of 1717In the Farman of 1717, there was one confusing provision which became the reason of main contention between the company and Nawab of Bengal. It was, whether the private trade of the company servants was under the Farman or not. It happened that time that the company servants used the farman for their own per- sonal trade and some of them even sold the dastaks to Indians on high rates. This was the main issue between the nawabs and British.
The problem was the free trade. It was during Farrukhsiyar reign, in 1717, that the British East India Company purchased duty-free trading rights in all of Bengal for a mere three thousand rupees a year. Mir Kasim opposed that the imperial Dastak was discriminatory. The British could trade without paying taxes but the other local merchants with dastaks were required to pay up to 40% of their revenue as tax.
In a reaction, Mir Kasim abolished all taxes on the local traders as well. This upset the British and hostility was renewed. The forces of Mir Kasim
overran the Company offices in Patna in 1763, killing several Europeans including the resident. In the initial skirmishes, Mir Kasim was successful but his forces were defeated in two battles by Major Adams at Gheria and Udhunala. He had to fled and take refuge to Nawab of Awadh Shuja-ud-Daula.
THE AFFAIRS OF AWADH #
Saadat Ali Khan I was the Subedar Nawab (Governor) of the Mughals in Awadh from 1722 to 1739. He was son of a merchant of Khurasan. When Nadir Shah attacked in 1739, he was in the battle from Mughal side. He died just after this attack and was succeeded by Safdarjung, who as soon as sat on the throne, paid Nadir Shah 2 Crore Rupees. Saf- darjung was succeeded by Shuja-ud-Daula in 1753.
When Mir Kasim took shelter from Shuja-ud- Daula, British asked him to deliver him to them. The Nawab refused to do so. In Delhi, Shah Alam or Ali Gauhar succeeded his father Alamgir II. On October 23, 1764, there was a decisive battle at Buxar.
Battle of Buxar October 22, 1764 #
On October 22-23, 1764, the decisive Battle of Buxar was fought. The belligerents were the East India Company on one side and combined forces of Mir Kasim, Shah Alam II and Shuja-ud-Daula. The combined forces had 40000 soldiers and the British Forces had 18000 forces. The three separate allies could not coordinate in a better way and got defeated.The British won this Battle of Buxar under the command of Major Hector Munro.
After this battle, Shah Alam II submitted to the British. Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula fled from the scene and took refuse to Rohilla. Mir Kasim also fled and died a few years later in extreme obscurity. Clive was in England when Battle of Buxar was fought and won by the British in his absence. In 1765, Clive returned styled Lord Clive as Governor General of Bengal for the second time. By this time, the British had shown their military supremacy in India for, the Battle of Buxar was tough contested bout, than the Battle of Plassey, which was won by deceit.
The important outcome of the Battle of Buxar was the Treaty of Allahabad which was signed between Lord Clive and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, who had submitted to the British in the battle. As per this treaty:
Mughal Emperor granted Fiscal Rights (Diwani) or right to administer the territory and collect taxes to the East India Company at Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Thus, the British became the masters of fate of the people of Bihar, Bengal and Orissa and now they would collect the revenue.
In lieu of this Right, the Company gave an annual tribute of 26 Lakh Rupees to the Mughals.
The districts of Kora and Allahabad were returned to Mughal Emperor.
Awadh was returned to Shuja-ud-Daulah but Allahabad and Kora was taken from him.
The Nawab of Awadh paid 53 Lakhs rupees of war indemnity to the British.
Thus, Clive, in person settled the fate of almost half of the Northern India.
The fiscal administration of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa and the territorial jurisdiction of the Northern Circars is called the Dual System of Government.
DUAL SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT #
Under this system, the company carried out the Diwani (Fiscal) jurisdiction so Company was Diwan. These decrepit Indians carried out the Niza- mat (territorial) jurisdiction so they were Nizam. This system of separate Diwan and Nizam is called Dual Administration. However, the real authority was East India Company in the Nizamat also. The biggest fall out of this system was that the Indian Merchants were reduced to beggars. On the one side, British kept enjoying the duty free trade, the Indian merchants were to pay around 40% of the revenue.
The peasants were now under the British rev- enue collection. The British left no stone unturned to extract each penny. There was zero activity in the name of development so Peasants started turning beggars. The new confusing administrative machin- ery, which was not properly set up, created chaos. The Officials of the British East India Company such as Lord Clive became extremely rich due to the clandestine private trade.
This was the beginning of the Economic loot from India, which made England the wealthiest country in the world in the 19th and 20th century. The consequence of this steady drain upon the pro- duction of the country soon began to be felt.
THE CORRUPTION IN EAST INDIA COMPANY AND ITS FALL OUTS #
After winning the Battle of Plassey, the 35 year young man Clive returned to England in 1760 with a fortune of 3 Lakh Pounds and a rent of 27 thousand Pounds per year. Further, the treasure of Nawab Sirajuddaula was looted in such a way that 20% was appropriated to the Zamindars and the corrupt company officials. In 1770, there was a catastrophic famine in Bengal. This famine was so ruinous that every 1 out of 3 people in Bengal (Plus Bihar & Orissa) died and the population of 30 million was reduced to 10 million.
The immediate reason of this famine was that the rains were no good and the company, which was now Diwan of the region, increased the land tax by 10% in April 1770. One partial reason was that Opium cultivation was something the corrupt British wanted from the peasants of India, which could maximize their trade profits. The Indians and the British were collectively responsible for this disaster.
Clive Fund #
After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, Clive arrived in May 1765. Mir Jafar was dead before his arrival and his son Kasim Ali succeeded him.
The overlords of the company in Britain wanted to introduce some reforms, which could “curb” the corruption in the East India Company. The Salaries of the servants was increased and acceptance of Gifts from the Indians had been forbidden. How- ever, Clive himself was a corrupt, so there was no much positive achievement in the purification of the Company’s service, by prohibiting illicit gains, and guaranteeing a reasonable salary from honest sources only.
Mir Jafar, before dying, had bequeathed a large sum to Lord Clive. But he was unable to accept this money honourably as under the new orders forbade the Company’s officials to accept presents from natives. With this money Clive established the Clive Fund for the disabled officers and men of the Company’s army. This was known as Clive’s Fund. The Fund was reverted to his heirs when the East India Company was dissolved.
FIRST ANGLO MYSORE WAR #
From 1734 to 1766, Mysore was under Krishna- raja Wodeyar II. His commander in chiefs domi- nated his reign and among them, Hyder Ali came to prominence from 1760 onwards. When Krishnaraja died, Hyder Ali became the de facto ruler of Mysore in 1763, though Nanjaraja was placed on the throne of Mysore as nominal head.
The Mysore had territorial threats from both the Marathas and Nizam of Hyderabad. In 1758, Hyder Ali was able to successfully drive out Marathas from Bangalore where they had laid a siege. But the Marathas were dominant and kept raiding Mysore territories at their will.
But before Hyder could become a ruler of Mysore, he had to overcome a conspiracy by Queen Mother of Mysore and one Khanderao. He cleverly overcame this conspiracy and captured and imprisoned Khanderao and took over Shrirangpat- nam. After that he tried to overrun the territories of Marathas but got defeated.
In 1761, in the Battle of Panipat, the Marathas got defeated and due to this they drew their forces from Mysore. Hyder Ali was able to increase his influence after this battle. The British were con- scious of rising power of Hyder Ali but they had no immediate reasons to become enemy of Hyder.
They immediate reason of the rivalry was the access to the Northern Circars, which was a series of coastal territories held by French. The Hyder- abad Nizam was a French Protégé, who rejected the demand of Robert Clive for access to this area. But, Robert Clive took his application to Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II who in 1765 issued a decree granting the rights of that territory to Clive.
Now after getting a Firman from the Emperor, British began occupying the Northern Circars, the Nizam objected. But the Nizam was too poor to fight a battle with the British. He sent letters to the Madras Presidency for a settlement. As per terms of this settlement, he gave the company 4 of the 5 Circars for a payment of Rs. 7 Lakh in Nizams endeavors.
The British also provided Nizam, two battalions of the troops. Now Nizam was getting ready to get Mysore from Hyder Ali. The Marathas also joined
the Nizam in this alliance against Hyder Ali. The war started when Marathas attacked Mysore in 1766. But Hyder Ali made peace with Marathas paying them 35 Lakh Rupees. Half amount was paid imme- diately and for rest Kolar was kept with Marathas for security. Now after Marathas returned, Nizam attacked Mysore with the assistance of British. But even before the war could be concluded, the Nizam changed the side and came towards Hyder Ali. The English forces could not retaliate and retreated to Trichinopoly under col. Smith. Later Col. Wood joined the British army and amid confusion, Hyder Ali retreated from the battle. Now the British threat- ened to attack Hyderabad. This brought the Nizam to thier knees and sign a treaty in 1768. As per the terms of this treaty:
Nizam agreed to abide by the treaty signed with British in context with the Northern Circars.
Hyder Ali was regarded as usurper and refused to acknowledge him as ruler of Mysore
Nizam agreed to help the British to punish Hyder Ali.
The important aspect of this treaty was that Nizam agreed to give the British Diwani Rights of Mysore when Hyder Ali was ousted and Mysore is won by him. Hyder Ali was left with no allies, but he was brave due to his solid Financial Position, partially. An English Force was sent to punish Hyder Ali, but it got defeated by this brave commander. The result was the Treaty of Madras. This Treaty of Madras was signed in April 1769 and it maintained the status quo.
As per the Treaty of Madras: #
- Both the Parties returned the areas won by each other.
- The District of Arcot was given to Nawab of Arcot.
- British & Hyder Ali Promised that they would support each other if there is any foreign invasion.
Hyder Ali believed that as per the terms of this treaty, British would come to help in if there is a conflict with the Marathas. So, he started demanding tributes from the smaller states on the border of Maratha and Mysore. The Marathas responded this in 1770 with a force of over 30 thousand. Hyder Ali requested the British to help, but British did not turn up. The result was that all the territories of Hyder were confiscated by the Marathas. Hyder again begged the British for the help, but the British placed some conditions which were not acceptable to him. The result was that Hyder requested for peace with Marathas. In return for the peace, he paid 36 Lakh Rupees to Marathas and 14 Lakh Rupee as annual Tribute. After this event, Hyder Ali remained an enemy of the British throughout his life.
Later, he came to know that his nominal ruler Nanjaraja was having a secret communication with the Marathas. So he executed him and placed Cham- raraja as nominal head. However, soon after that the Marathas came under mutual dissention and this gave Hyder an opportunity to claim back all he had lost.
