The Middle Kingdoms

INTRODUCTION #

The rise of the powerful albeit administra- tively decentralised kingdoms south of Narmada, marked the period of the Indian Feudalism. These kingdom, though often in ways were instrumental in developing a fusion culture which was marked by consistency and change from the Northern and southern traditions.

CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI #

Middle of the 6th century marks the rise of the Chalukyas of Vatapi or Chalukyas of Badami, Deccan.

POLITICAL SUMMARY OF CHALU- KYAS OF BADAMI #

The Chalukyas seem to be a race of Rajputs from North who imposed their rule upon the Dravid- ian inhabitants of the Deccan tableland. The Royal Emblem of Chalukyas of Badami was “Varaha”. The earliest reference in this dynasty is of one Jayasimha, who has also been referred to as Vallabha. The first independent king of this dynasty was Pulkesin I.

Pulkesin I #

The real founder of Chalukyas of Badami was a chieftain Pulkesin I, who made himself master of a town called Vatapi, which is modern Badami in the Bijapur district of Karnataka in around 543 AD. He is said to have claimed a paramount position by performing the Ashwamedha Yajna. (Pulkesin-his descendants are called Chalukyas of Badami). Pulkesin I assumed the titles of Satyashraya, Val- labaha and Dharmamaharaja. He had overthrown the Kadamabas. The Badami Cliff inscription tells

that Pulkesin I performed all of the 5 yajnas which make a king paramount and they are Hiranyagarbha, Agnistoma, Vajapeya, Bahusuvarna and Paundarika. Name of meaning of Pulkesin is “Hair of Lion”.

Kirtivarman I #

The two sons of Pulkesin-I viz. Kirtivarman I and Mangaldesa extended the possessions of the family both eastward and westward. Kirtivarman-I completely subjugated the Kadambs and secured the extension of the Kingdom. Goa which was then known as Revatidwipa was annexed by Kirtivarman

I. His brother Mangaldesa assumed the responsibil- ities of the government after his death as his son Pulkesin II was too young at the time of his death. Some scholars say that this succession was disputed and Pulkesin II overcame this rivalry. He ascended the throne in 608 AD. For two decades this able prince adopted a career of aggressive conquests in all directions and defeated the Kings of Lata (South Gujarat), Gurjara (Rajputana), Malwa and Kadam- abas in the west and Pallavas of Vengi in the east.

Pulkesin II #

Pulkesin II is the most celebrated ruler of the Chalukyas of Badami. His birth name was Ereya and he was born to Kirtivarman-I. Since, he was too young when his father died, his paternal uncle Man- galdesa was made the king. Some sources say that his uncle denied him his right to get the throne when he grown up and he rebelled against his uncle. Ereya organized an army near modern Kolar in Karnataka and defeated and killed Mangaldesa (Peddavadagur inscription). He defeated the Kadamabas of the Banavasi, Alupas of modern Southern Karnataka, Maurya of Konkan and after a naval war captured

Island of Elephanta from the Mauryas of Konkan. He also defeated the Kosala, Kalinga etc. in the east. In down south, he defeated Mahendravarman-I. This was the time when Harsha was a major power in Northern India. Pulkesin II and Harsha engaged in a battle at the banks of the Narmada. This was a decisive battle in which Harsha lost a big part of his elephant army and had to retreat. This is mentioned in the Aihole Inscription. The same battle has been described by Huen Tsang too.

The battle ended with a treaty in which Harsha was made to recognize river Narmada as his south- ern border. After this victory, Pulkesin II assumed the titles of Parmeshwara, Prithivivallabha, Sat- yashraya etc. and became the paramount power in modern Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. He also assumed the title of Dakshinpatheshwara around the same time, on the lines of Harsha’s title Uttarpatheshwara. Pulkesin II was also the one of the first kings in South India to issue the Gold Coins.

The enmity of Pulkesin II with Pallavas of Kanchi finally took his life in 642 AD, when one of the Pallava Kings (Narsimhamvaraman) plundered his capital and probably put him to death. For next 13 years Pallavas dominated in South India includ- ing the Vatapi.

The fame of Pulkesin II spread beyond the geographical limits of India and reached the ears of Khusrau II the King of Persia. Khusrau II in 36th year of his reign i.e. 625 AD received a comple- mentary embassy from Pulkesin II. He reciprocated the embassy with a Persian embassy which was welcomed with due honors in India. One of the large Frescoes of Ajanta Paintings in Cave Number 1, vividly rep- resents the ceremonial attending the presentation of their credentials by the Persian Courts. This is a great record of India-Persia relations in those times.

Vikramaditya I #

In 655 AD, one of the five sons of Pulkesin II known as Vikramaditya I attempted to restore the unity of the Kingdom and was successful in throwing Pallavas out of Vatapi. The enmity of the Chaluk- yas continued by Vikramaditya I and he befriended with other enemies of Pallavas. He advanced to Kanchipuram but was defeated by the Pallavas. During the reign of Vikramaditya I , one branch of the Chalukyas was able to establish itself in Gujarat

who in next 100 years offered vigorous oppositions to the Arabs. Vikramaditya I was succeeded by his son Vinayaditya, who continued the expeditions. The reign of Vinayaditya is assigned 680 AD to 696 AD. His reign was generally peaceful. During those times, Persia was politically unstable mostly due to the Arab Invasions.

End of Chalukyas of Badami #

The successors of Vinayaditya continued to exist for next half century. The last ruler was Kirtivarman II who was also known as Rahappa. His reign was a short period of 7 years from 746 AD to 753 AD. The Chalukyas of Badami were continuously disturbed by the growing powers of Rastrakuta and Pandyas and finally were destroyed by them. The blunder of Kirtivarman II was to undermine the rising power of Dantidurga, who established the Rastrakuta Empire.

THE LEGACY OF CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI #

The Badami Chalukya era was an important period in the development of South Indian architec- ture. Their style of architecture is called “Chalukyan architecture” or “Karnata Dravida architecture”. Nearly a hundred monuments built by them, rock cut (cave) as well as structural, are found in the Malaprabha river basin in modern Bagalkot district of northern Karnataka. The building material they used was reddish-golden Sandstone found locally. Though they ruled a vast empire, the Chalukyan workshops concentrated most of their temple build- ing activity in a relatively small area within the Chalukyan heartland – Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Mahakuta in modern Karnataka state.

Ravana Phadi Cave #

The earliest monument of Chalukyas of Badami is the Ravana Phadi Cave at Aihole, not far from Badami. It was probably made around A.D. 550 and is dedicated to Siva. Ravana Phadi Cave is one of the Earliest Rock Cut Temple located at Aihole, the first capital of the early Chalukyas. At Aihole, they built more than 70 Hindu Temples later.

Badami Cave Temples #

Badami cave temples are located at Badami. The red sandstone cliffs of Badami offered a spectacular

setting for the excavation of four caves, three Brah- manical and one Jaina (Parshwavanath). The largest and most impressive of these is Cave 3, dedicated to Vishnu. An inscription next to a Varaha depiction states that Mangalesa, a brother of King Kirtivarman, dedicated the cave in A.D. 578. Members of the royal family of Chalukyas patronized many Chalukyan monuments. All of them were created in sixth and 7th century. The architecture is a mixture of the Nagara style and Dravida style. Apart from the above four, there is a fifth natural Buddhist cave in Badami.

Virupaksha Temple, Hampi #

Virupaksha Temple is located in Hampi in Karnataka on the banks of the Tungabhadra river. Virupaksha Temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and was created by the Chalukyas of Badami initially in 8th century. The temple was improvised in Vijayna- gar Empire. It is in the Virupaksha temple at Hampi that full glory of the Early Chalukyan art can be seen. This temple was was built in 735 AD by a queen of Vikramaditya II. To celebrate the victory over the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.

Lad khan Temple #

The Lad Khan temple is the earliest temple of Aihole, which dates back to 5th century AD. An inscription on this temple says that it was dedicated to Durga. There is a Shiva linga out there. The temple is known as Lad Khan after its owner (in most recent times) at a place used as cattle sheds or houses. This temple has a large porch and is made in a Panchayat hall kind of design with 12 pillars. This was earliest experiment for a pillar based structures in the temple architecture.

Navbhramha Group of Temples, Alampur #

The Navabrahma Group of temples is located at Alampur in Andhra Pradesh. There are total 9 temples and present a marvelous piece of art of the Chalukyas of Badami outside Karnataka. These temple are based upon the Nagara style and do not reflect the Dravidian style of temple architecture (8 out of 9 are clearly Nagara style). The Alampur temples are the finest example of the Chalukyas of Badami Art. The Nava Bhrama temples are Taraka Bhrama, Swarga Bhrama, Padma Bhrama, Bala Bhrama, Garuda Bhrama, Kumara Bhrama, Arka Bhrama, Vira Bhrama and the Vishwa Bhrama.

These temples are all enclosed in a courtyard on the left bank of the river Tungabhadra.

Temples at Pattadakal #

Numerous temples at Pattadakal on the bank of river Malprabha, some kilometers from Aihole mark the return of the Chalukya patronage to Karnataka after several years of activity in the Andhra Pradesh. The first temple is Galagnatha Temple which is in Nagara style similar to the Alampur temple.

Diferent Temple Architecture Styles A typical Hindu temple consists of an inner Sanctum called Garbha griha, where the idol is placed, which has a circumambulation, a congregation hall and a porch. The temples can be distinguished with the Shikhara or Vimana. On this basis, there are two types of tem- ple viz. Nagara which is North Indian and Dravida which is South India. The northern-style (Nagara), Shikhara is shaped like a beehive and is made up of layer upon layer of architectural elements called kapotas and gavakshas. The temple also has a very unusual, open ambulatory around the sanctum, with pillars and no wall on the outside. In Dravida style, tower consists of progressively smaller storey’s of pavilions. The Vesara style has characters of both. The Gadag style is a feature of the Western Chalukya temples and it is characterized by ornate columns. The Kalinga architecture is different. It has Rekha Deula,Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula types of temples. Out of them the Khakhara Deula is essentially of a female deity such as Durga or Chamunda. Konark Sun temple is a Pidha Deula.

Important Observations about the temples of Badami Chalukyas:

• These temples are a mixture of Northern and Dravida style of temple architecture, and rep- resent a transition as well as experimentation in the temple architecture.
• The temples are located on the banks of River Tungabhadra and Malprabaha in Karnataka and Alampur in Andhra Pradesh , which is near Kurnool.
• The largest temple of Chalukyas of Badami is Virupaksha Temple, whose complex encloses

30 sub shrines and a large Nadi mandapa. This was also earliest example of Shiva tem- ples, which have a Nandi pavilion in front of he temple.

Literature of Chalukyas of Badami #

• The most important literature of the Badami Chalukyas is the Aihole inscription of Pulke- sin II written by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit language and Kannada script.
• Famous writers in Sanskrit from the Western Chalukya period are Vijnaneshwara who achieved fame by writing Mitakshara, a book on Hindu law, and King Somesvara III, a noted scholar, who compiled an encyclopedia of all arts and sciences called Manasollasa. The Karnateshwara Katha, which was quoted later by Jayakirti, is believed to be a eulogy of Pulkesin II.

RASTRAKUTA EMPIRE #

In the mid of the 8th century, Dantidurga , who was one of the chieftain of ancient rastrakuta family fought his way to the front and overthrew Kirtivar- man II, thus bringing an end to the main branch of Chalukyas. This was the beginning of the Rastrakuta Empire in Deccan.

POLITICAL SUMMARY OF RASTRA- KUTAS #

Dantidurga #

Dantidurga’s reign is from 735 AD to 756 AD. He is also known as Dantivarman or Dantidurga II. Just after occupying Vatapi, he also carried out several conquests but became unpopular very soon and was deposed by his uncle Krishna I. Dantidurga made Gulbarga his capital and defeated the Kar- natbala of the Badami Chalukya (Kirtivarman II). He also defeated the kings of Lata (Gujarat), Malwa, Kalinga, Nagas and assumed the title of Rajadhiraja.

Krishna I #

Krishna I is known for completing the establish- ment of Rastrakuta supremacy over the dominions of Chalukyas. Last Badami Chalukya Kirtivarman

II though defeated by Dantidurga, but remained in power till 757 AD when he was destroyed by Krishna I. This is mentioned in the copper plate grant of Govinda III. Krishna I is best known for execution of the most marvelous architectural work in India i.e. Kailas Temple at Ellora. Kailas Temple

is the most extensive and most opulent example of rock cut architecture in India.

Govinda II #

Krishna I was succeeded by Govinda II, his eldest son. He became unpopular soon and was excessively indulged in the sensual pleasures. He left the admin- istration to his younger brother Dhruva (Nirupama).

Dhruva #

Dhruva was an able prince who continued the wars with the neighbors and expanded the frontiers of Rastrakuta empire. This was the reign of Dhruva, when Rastrakuta emerged as one of the great powers in India.

Govinda III #

Dhruva’s son Govinda III was also one of the most remarkable princes of this dynasty. The capital of rastrakuta up till now was Nasik and it was shifted to Manyakheta (Malkhed) by Govinda III. Govinda III’s conquests were up to Cape Camorin in south, Kannauj in North and Banaras in East. His rein was from 794 to 814 AD.

Amoghavarsha #

Govinda III was succeeded by his son Amogha- varsha or Amoghavarsha I or Nrupathunga.

The reign of Amoghavarsha is from 800 to 878 AD (though some scholars says that his reign was 62 years), one of the longest reigns. He was the greatest ruler of the Rastrakuta Empire. He indulged in con- stant wars with the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and remained successful. Amoghavarsha was a patron of the Jains and liberally patronized the Digambara sect of Jains. His contribution led to rapid progress made by the Digambara Jain sect in the 9th and 10 th century under Jinasena and Gunabhadra. (As evident from Mahapurana). Both of these Digambar Jain monks enjoyed favor of more than one monarchs and were responsible to eclipse Buddhism.

The result was that Buddhism finally disappeared from Deccan in the early 12th century. Amoghavar- sha deeply loved his subjects and many historians have compared him with Asoka.

Successors of Amoghavarsha #

Amoghavarsha   was    succeeded   by    Krishna

II. Though his period is 878 AD to 914 AD but it seems that he started ruling during his father’s reign. He was followed by Indra II, who was suc- ceeded by Amoghavarsha II. Amoghavarsha II was assassinated by his brother Govinda IV, within one year of his rule. Govinda IV reigned till 935 AD. The feudatories of Govinda IV revolted and deposed him. He was succeeded by Amoghavarsha III (also known as Baddiga).

These all rulers were less important and finally, the dynasty came to an end as the last ruler Kakka II (Karaka) was killed by Taila II or Tailpa II the scion of old Chalukya stock in 973 AD. Thus, Taila II founded the dynasty of Chalukyas of Kalyani which lasted for 2 centuries.

LEGACY OF RASHTRAKUTAS #

The reign of Rastrakutas of Manyakheta was from 753 AD to 982 AD. The rastrakutas were great patrons of architecture.The Rastrakuta architecture was a splendid form of Rock cut architecture. Most of the shrines were Buddhist caves such as Ellora and Elephants at Maharastra.

Kailasanatha temple at Ellora #

Ellora caves, located 30 km northwest of Aurangabad, make up one of the major cave temple groups in India, belonging to the Rastrakuta period. In Ellora there are Buddhist, Hindu as well as Jain cave temples, spread over a stretch of 2 km. These are not just cave temples but also temples sculpted out of rock and are much richer in style and detail. Caves 1-12 are Buddhist, 13-29 are Hindu and 30-34 are Jain, excavated in that order. Most extensive and sumptuous of them all is the Kailasanatha temple. It was carved out of single solid granite about 100 feet high and the temple measures 150’ × 100’. There are four main parts of the temple, and those are the main shrine, the entrance gateway to the west, a Nandi pavilion and cloister all round the courtyard.The architecture style used in Kailasanatha temple was Dravida.

CHALUKYAS   OF   KALYANI   AND CHALUKYAS OF VENGI #

Western Chalukya Empire: Chalukyas of Kalyani #

After the Chalukyas of Badami were destroyed by Dantidurga, they revived after two centuries in

around 972-73AD. This was known as Chalukyas of Kalyani and is supposed to have the same genealogy as those of the previous mighty Chalukyas (though this is disputed). This was established by Tailapa-II who was one of the feudatories of the Rastrakuta.

Eastern Chalukya Empire: Chalukyas of Vengi #

The origins of the Chalukyas of Vengi go back to the time of Pulkesin II when he had appointed his brother Kubja Vushnu Vardhana as a Viceroy of Vengi in around 620 AD. This developed as an independent kingdom for a short period and later remained under the control of first Rastrakuta and then Cholas. They contributed to the growth of the Telugu literature.

POLITICAL HISTORY OF CHALUK- YAS OF KALYANI #

The last ruler of Rastrakuta Dynasty Kakka II (Karaka) was killed by Taila II or Tailapa II the scion of old Chalukya stock in 973 AD. For 200 years they remained in conflict with the Cholas and also the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. They were finally destroyed by the Hoyasala Empire in 12th century. The empire of Chalukyas of Kalyani is also known as Western Chalukya Empire. This empire has a great contribution in the modern Kannada literature as well as Sanskrit literature.

Tailapa II #

Tailapa-II was one of the feudatories of the Rastrakutas. He restored the family of his ancestors to its former glory. Taila reigned for 24 years and during that time was able to recover the ancient territory of his race except the Gujarat region. We know about his reign from the Gadag records. He patronized a Kannada poet Ranna who was one the earliest poets of Kannada language. Ranna, Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna together are called three gems of Kannada literature. Most of the time, Tailapa II kept on fighting with Munja, a Paramara king of Dhara. Munja was finally captured and probably killed in captivity. This was in 995 AD. Two years later Tailpa died and his crown was passed on to his son Satyasraya.

Satyasraya #

The period of reign of Satyasraya was 997 to

1008 AD. Though, to start with, he adopted the aggressive policy of his father had enmity with the eastern Chalukyas and Cholas. His 11 years reign was disturbed and was finally faced the disastrous consequence of a war with the great Chola Rajara- ja-I. Rajaraja-I overran the Chalukya country and looted and killed a large number of men, women and children. Satyasraya was followed by Vikramaditya V and Jaysimha II. The next important king was Someshwara I.

Someshwara I #

Someshwara I, who was also known as Aha- vamalla or Trilokamalla reigned from 1042 AD to 1068 AD. The contemporary Chola King was Rajadhiraja Chola I who became Chola king in the same year i.e. 1042. Someshwara I had established Kalyani as its capital.

He faced the attack of Rajadhiraja Chola-I, who overran initially the Chalukyan capital and demol- ished the forts and erected the pillars as a memo- rabilia of the victories, but the Chalukyan counter attack forced them out. Under Someshwara-I , the Chalukya army raided Chola capital Kanchipuram but it was repelled back. Finally in the battle of Kop- pam, Rajadhiraja Chola was killed. But his younger brother took the command and drove the Chalukyas back. In this attack, brother of Someshwara-I was killed. The reign of Someshwara I is known for numerous wars.

This able king of the Western Chalukya Empire ended his life by drowning himself in the river Tungabhadra, due to his inability to endure a fever. Someshwara I was succeeded by his elder son Someshwara II, but Someshwara II was soon deposed by his younger brother Vikramaditya VI, whose reign is from 1076 – 1126 AD.

Vikramaditya VI #

Vikramaditya VI ascended the throne in 1076 AD which marks the beginning of Chalukya-Vikram era. Vikramaditya VI was one of the ablest kings of the Western Chalukyan Empire. He left the maximum number of inscriptions, all in Kannada. He is the hero of a historical poem (Vikramankadevacharita) by Bilhana, a Kashmir poet and reigned for around half a century in tolerable peace.

Vikramaditya VI captured Kanchi in late in his career and engaged with serious battles with a Hoyasala King of Dorsamudra known as Vishnu. In the capital Kalyani during the times of Vikram- aditya VI, a celebrated jurist of the 12th century called Vijnanesvara lived. Vijnanesvara has written a treatise on inheritance which is among the most influential legal treatises in Hindu Law outside Bengal. The title of this work was Mitâksarâ.

Mitaksarais considered to be an important com- mentary on Yajnavalkya Smriti. Another work by Vijhanesvara is Dayabhaga, which is also related to Hindu law. Death of Vikramaditya VI was followed by a decline of Chalukya Empire. The Western Cha- lukya Dynasty ended in 1190, when most parts of its territory were absorbed by Yadavas of Devagiri and Hoyasals of Dorsamudra. The last King of Western Chalukyan Empire was Someshwara IV. After his death, the remaining territories of the Western Cha- lukyan Empire were absorbed by the Great Hoyasala King Veera Ballala II.

LEGACY OF WESTERN CHALUKYAS #

While the buildings of the Chalukyas of the Bad- ami are centered in and around Pattadakal, Aihole, Badami & Alampur, the buildings of the Western Chalukyas are widely dispersed, which reflect the system of the local government and decentralization in the Western Chalukyan Administration.

The major improvement over the previous Badami Chalukya temple was the “Architectural Articulation” or ornamentation on the outer walls of the shrine. The presence of Figure sculpture such as Heroes of Ramayana and Mahabharata and loving couples (Mithuna) was additional structure of these temples at the earliest period. The Western Chalu- kyan Temples are either Ekakuta (one mandapa of one shrine) or Dvikuta (a common hall attached to two shrines). The style has characters of both the Northern as well as Dravidian temple architecture. This combination of both of these style is known as Vesara Style, also Central Indian Style, which is represented by the Hoyasala Temples.

Most of the temples of the Western Chalukyas are dedicated to Shiva, some of them dedicated to Vishnu and Jain Tirthankars also. The Hoysalas architecture was clearly influenced by the Western Chalukyan Architecture.

Truketshwara Temple, Gadag #

Gadag Style: The Gadag Style refers to the ornate columns in the temples. This style origi- nated in the period of the Western Chalukya King Someshwara I. The finest example of Gadag style is Trikuteshwara Temple at Gadag. The hall mark of the Gadag Style of Ornate pillars is visible in the Trukuteshwara Temple complex located at Gadag. This temple was created during the reign of Somesh- wara I in the 11th century. The temple is dedicated to Shiva and has three lingams mounted on a single stone. The ornate pillars are located in an exclusive Saraswati Shrine in the temple complex.

Temples of Lakkundi #

Lakkundi is a tiny village in Gadag District of Karnataka. Here, we find 50 temples of the Western Chalukyan Empire, most important of which are Mahadeva Temple and Kahi Visheveshwar Temple. The place is also a source of around 30 inscriptions of the Chalukyas, Kalachuris, Seunas, Kadambas and Hoysalas.

Kasivisvesvara Temple, Lakkundi #

Kasivisvesvara Temple, Lakkundi is one of the most ornate temples in Karnataka. This temple was initially built in the Western Chalukyan Empire and later additions were done by Verea Ballala II, the great Hoyasala King. It’s a Dvikuta Temple.

Mahadeva Temple, Itagi #

About 20 kilometers from Nakkundi is located the Mahadeva Temple of Itagi. It was built by one of the commanders of the Western Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI in 1112 AD. This temple is one of the finest example of “Dravida Articulation” in Nagara style. This is evident from the picture of the Shikhara of the main shrine shown here.

Doddabasappa Temple, Dambal #

Doddabasappa Temple located at Dambal in Karnataka is one more example of fine Western Chalukyan Art. This temple is a variant of Dravida style called the karnatadravida Temple style. The temple is built on uninterrupted 24 pointed star shaped floor plan, which is different from the pre existing 6-12 and 24 interrupted star shaped temples.

Other Western Chalukya Temples are located at Kuknur, Lakmeshwar, Bankarupa etc.

Important features of the Temples of the Western Chalukyas: #

The western Chalukya temples show an improve- ment over the previous experiments. These temples show a transition from the Nagara to Dravida style and create a new style Karnatadravida.

The ornate columns are seen as one of the most important features and that is why some of the tem- ples such as “Mahadeva Temple” are called finest in Karnataka after Halebid.

The Temple plan in most of the plans is star shaped. Most temples are dedicated to Shiva and Nandi at the entrance of the shrine appears as a main feature.

HOYASALA EMPIRE #

A family or clan named Hoyasala had attained considerable power in the present day Karnataka during the 12th and 13th century. This empire ruled almost all the present day Karnataka between the 11th to mid of the 14th century. Their capital was Belur which was later shifted to Halebidu. This period was a very important era for the development of the art, architecture and religion in the Southern countries. The Hoyasala Empire contributed in the growth of both the Kannada and Sanskrit literature.

POLITICAL SUMMARY OF HOYSALAS #

The earliest known king of this empire is Nripa Kama II who lived around 1026-1047 AD. He was probably a feudatory of the Western Ganga Dynasty and is known to have indulged in futile wars against the Cholas. However, another early Hoyasala ruler Vinayaditya was a feudatory of Chalukyas of Kaly- ani. Vinayaditya was having family ties with Western Chalukyan King Someshwara I. His son Ereyanaga tried to establish himself as an independent monarch but was not successful. He was succeeded by Veera Ballala-I who was also an unimportant ruler. The first notable great Hoyasala king was Vishnuvard- hana, who was also known as Bittiga.

Vishnuvardhana #

The period assigned to reign of Vishnuvardhana or Bittiga is 1108-1152 AD. He is best known for taking steps to consolidate the Hoyasala Empire.

He established his capital at Dorsamudra, which is modern Halebidu in Karnataka. Vishnu- vardhana was younger brother of Veera Ballala-I. He assumed the title of Talakadagonda and Veera Ganga. He built Nirtinarayana temple at Talakad and Chennakasava temple at Belur. He was originally a Jain and Jain religion enjoyed high favour under his minister Gangaraja’s protection. He carried out numerous conquests and defeated the mighty kings of the Chola, Pandya and Chera kingdoms. It is said that under the influence of Ramanujacharya, Vish- nuvardhana converted to Hinduism and became a Vaishnavite. This is evident by a number of Vishnu temples, built during his reign. He died in 1152 and his son Narsimha I ascended the throne. Narsimha I killed the Western Chalukyan ruler Tailapa III. He was succeeded by Veera Ballala II.

Veera Ballala II #

Veera Ballala II (1173–1220 AD) was another greatest monarch of the Hoyasala Empire. He put the Chalukyas of Kalyani to an end by defeating Someshwara IV. After this defeat Someshwara IV shifted his capital to Banavasi, and the Kalyani passed to the hands of Yadavas of Devagiri. With Cholas he had family relationships. The successors of Vera Ballala II were mostly unimportant rulers. The last great King was Veera Ballala III.

Veera Ballala III #

Veera Ballala III was the last great ruler of the Hoyasala Empire. His reign was from 1291 AD till 1343 AD. In 1310, the commanders of Sultan Alauddin Khilji had invaded the Deccan devastat- ing most of the countries. By 1318 Devagiri was occupied by Sultan of Delhi and by 1336, almost all Hindu Kingdoms of the south except the Hoy- asala Empire were annexed to the Delhi Sultanate. A muslim Madurai Sultanate was also formed in those years. Veera Ballala III campaigned against the muslims. He made Tiruvannamalai as his new capital and founded another capital at the banks of River Tungabhadra at Hosapattana where his able commanders Harihara and Bukkaraya (popularly known as Hakka and Bukka) founded the Vijayan- agar Empire in 1336.

Veera Ballala III was killed in one of the battles against the Delhi Sultan in 1343. He was succeded

by Harihara Raya I who founded the Sangama Dynasty of the Vijayanagar empire.

THE LEGACY OF HOYSALAS #

By the 13th century, the power of the Cholas had declined. This was the time for a great and sophisticated culture when marvelous temples were built in Karnataka and parts of Tamil Nadu. Hoy- asala influence was at its zenith during the 13th century and the artists of this empire freely borrowed from the Chalukya and Chola traditions and created a style unique in many ways. Hoyasala history is clear from the time of King Vishnuvardhana, who ruled from A.D. 1108 to A.D. 1142. Inscriptions show that the king, his wife and his ministers were generous patrons of temples.

Chennakesava Temple, Belur #

Vishnuvardhana, who defeated the imperial Cholas in A.D. 1116, in the memory of establish- ment of his dynasty and this victory, built a temple for Kesava, or Chennakesava, at Belur, and named it the Vijayanarayana temple. The temple is a classic example of the ornate style of temple art under the Hoysalas. They inherited a rich tradition of temple building from the Chalukyas and the Cholas.

Hoysaleshwar Temple, Halebid #

Hoysaleshwar Temple was built between A.D. 1121 and A.D. 1160 in the area of Halebid, known then as Dorsamudra, which was the capital of the Hoysalas. It was also built during the reign of Vishnuvardhana. The temple is Dvikuta, means two shrines which are called “Hoysaleswara” and “Shantaleswara”. Shantala was queen of Vishnu- vardhana. The temple is best known for sculptures on the outerwalls.

Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura #

Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura was built by Soma, a commander of the Narsimha III. It is also one of the finest structures of the Hoyasala architecture.

Important Features of the Hoyasala Tem- ples: #

• The Hoyasala built around 1500 temples at 958 centers between 1000 AD to 1346 AD.

The finest temples were commissioned during the times of Vishnuvardhana.

• He was a subordinate to the Western Chaluk- yas and probably after declaring independence wanted to excel in this art also. This is evident from one of his inscriptions which says “built it from the wealth which he amassed from the sword”.
• The Hoyasala temple architecture was heavily influenced by the Western Chalukyas, Cholas as well as Pallavas, though there was a depar- ture from the Chalukyan style.
• This is evident from the fact that in the begin- ning, the temples were not over decorated, but the later temples have this feature in almost of its totality.

YADAVAS OF DEVAGIRI #

The Yadavas of Devagiri were the descendants of the feudatory nobles of the Western Chalukyan Empire. The most important territory which they had under them was between Devagiri (Modern Daultabad) and Nasik and was known as Sevana or Seuna, though they had influence in modern Maharashtra, North Karnataka and parts of Southern Madhya Pradesh. They are known as founders of Marathi Culture. The name Seuna has been used for them in the Hoyasala and Kakatiya inscriptions and seems to be probably derived from the name of Seunachandra, second ruler of this dynasty. This dynasty was founded by Dridhaprahara. His son Seunachandra ruled an area of present Khandesh which was known as Seundesa.

Bhillama 1173-1191 AD #

The first of Yadavas in this line to achieve importance was Bhillama or Bhillama V, who estab- lished the sovereign Seuna Kingdom and founded Devagiri in 1187 AD. His territory was bordered by Parmaras in North, Kaktiya in east, Hoyasals in South and Solankis in west. The mighty Devagari fort which was 184 meters was captured by Alaud- din Khilji in 1294 and was later plundered by Malik Kafur again 1307, 1310 and 1318 was an important landmark of his reign. Bhillama was killed in a battle

with a Hoyasala Chief in 1191 AD. The second great ruler of this dynasty was Singhana II.

Singhana II #

Singhana II (1200-1246 AD) was the most important ruler of the Yadavas Dynasty. He carried out several conquests and expanded the kingdom from the banks of Narmada to Tungabhadra. He invaded Gujarat and other countries and made the Yadavas Kingdom matching in extent the realms of the Chalukyas and the Rastrakutas. Singhana

II was a great patron of fine arts and literature. Sarangadeva, the great author of Sangita Ratnakar was an accountant in the court of Singhana II. His work Sangeet Ratnakara is considered to be one of the most important works on Hindustani as well as Classical Music.

Raja Ramchandra #

The Yadavas of Devagiri, akin to the Hoyas- als were destroyed by the Muslim invaders. Raja Ramchandra was the last sovereign Hindu Ruler of Deccan. When Alauddin Khilji, sultan of Delhi crossed the Narmada River, the northern frontier of Yadavas in 1294, the Yadava Ruler Raja Ramchandra (1291- 1309 AD) was obliged to surrender and was ran- somed his life by a large treasure that included 600 maunds of pearls, two Maunds of Diamonds, rubies, emeralds and sapphires. (One maund was around 40 Kilograms, though Maund was officially pegged at 37.3242 kilograms in British India/ independent India).The Sultan’s incursions were again repeated by Malik Kafur in 1309 and Ramchandra again submitted to the invader.After his death, his son in law Harpala revolted against the Muslim Sultan in 1318 and was defeated, then flayed (skinned) alive and was decapitated. This was the miserable end of the Yadavas of Devagiri. Ramchandra like other Yadava rulers was a patron of art and literature. In his court, the celebrated Sanskrit author Hemadri or Hemadpant served as a Chief Minister. Chaturvarga Chintamani was his encyclopedic Sanskrit work. Hemadpant introduced Modi script for writing in Marathi from Ceylon and has left some valuable historical sketch of Yadava dynasty.