INTRODUCTION #
The North West India from a natural border which was since time immemorial being used by the tourist, Merchants and later on by the invaders to make in roads the plains of the Indian subcontinent. The India ruling elites were in no position to tackle the foreign onslaught and were subjugated one after another. Thus, marked the beginning of the long rule of Muslim dynasty in India.
KASHMIR #
The Kashmir Valley was under Ashoka during the Mauryan Empire. It remained under the Kushana dominion under Kanishka and Huvishka. It was not directly under Harsha but it is said that the king of this region was compelled by Harsha to pay tributes.
The authentic history of Kashmir begins with Karkota Dynasty, which was founded by one Dur- labhvardhana during the lifetime of Harshavardhana. The most notable king of this Karkota dynasty was grandson of Durlabahaka named Lalitaditya Muk- tapida (724-760 AD). Lalitaditya created a vast Karkota empire based on Kashmir and covering most of Northern India and Central Asia including most parts of Pakistan.
The Martand complex of temples in the Anant- nag district of Today’s Kashmir perpetuate the memory of King Lalitaditya Muktapida.
Kabul Shahi & Hindu Shahi Dynasty of Afghanistan #
Shahi as a title was used by the Sakas, Kushanas, Hunas, Bactirans etc… The Kushana used “Shao”
and Mihirkula – the Huna tyrant used the word ‘Saha’. The Kushana also used the title ‘Shaonano Shao’ (Shah-in- Shah).
By Kabulshahi, we refer to the Kingdoms at Kabul which followed the decline of the Kushana Empire in the portions of Modern Afghanistan. This Kabul Shahi was later overthrown by a Brahmin called Lalliya, who founded the “Hindu Shahi” dynasty (or Brahman Shahi) in Afghanistan. Its capital was Hund near Modern Peshwar in Pakistan. Lalliya, Kamala Toramana, Bhimadeva, Jaipala, Anandapala, Trilochanpala, Bhimapala were the kings of this dynasty.
These Kings kept fighting with the invaders from Central asia. Jaypala faced frequent raids of Turkic rulers of Ghazni such as Sabuktigin, who founded the Ghaznavid Empire. In 977 AD, Subukt- gin captured Kandahar and prompted the Jayapala to launch a strike against him. Overconfident Jayapal’s one lakh strong army was defeated and he was com- pelled to pay heavy tributes. He defaulted in the payments and was again attacked and defeated. In 1001, Sabuktigin’s son Mahamud Ghazanavi came in Power. Once more Jayapala attacked the Ghaznavid but again defeated. Thus, repeated defeats against the Ghaznavid humiliated him and unable to tolerate these humiliations he committed suicide by burning himself in funeral pyre.
Another Shahi king Anandpala stood against Mahmud Ghazanavi and is said to have entered into a peace treaty with the later, so that he could die in peace. Some historians compare Anandapala to ancient King Porus.
Sindh #
After changing hands from Harsha to many others, at the time of Arab invasions, Sindh was under Raja Dahir who reigned till 712 AD from his capital Brahamanabad. He was the last Hindu Ruler of Sindh and parts of Modern Punjab (Pakistan). The Arab conquest of Sindh is mentioned in the oldest Chronicle of Sindh called “Chach Nama”. He was attacked, defeated and killed by Mohammad Bin Qasim, a general of the Umayyad Caliphate. Enormous wealth was looted from Brahmanabad.
Qasim was sent by the Caliph Walid I to con- quer India. This was time of fanatic Muslim rulers in Arab whose sole aim was to strengthen Islam and punish those who do not accept Islam. After Sindh, Qasim conquered Multan and sent Abu Hakim to win Kannauj. The Presence of Qasim was short. For the Umayyads , this was first alien land brought under their territory which was inhabitated by the non-Muslims.
The Arab rule continued for 3 centuries in Sindh. It was later under the Ghaznavid Empire and finally came under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughals. In 1747, Sindh became a vassal state of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan. In 1839, British occupied Sindh.
THE THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF RAJPUTS #
The term Rajput starts coming in use from the 6th Century AD. They rose to prominence from the 6th century until 12th century and kept ruling in different parts of the country from Sultanate to Mughal Era, and as rulers of the princely states until the departure of British from the country in 1947. Several theories exist about the origin of the Rajputs. They important theories are as follows:
Foreign origin Theory of Origin of Rajputs: Rajputs are descendents of the races like Sakas, Kus- hanas, Hunas etc. Col. James Todd put this theory forward. Col. James Todd was the celebrated author of Annals and Antiques of Rajasthan.He has detailed the history of Rajputana and Central India.The main argument of James Todd behind the foreign origin of the Rajputs was that these people worshipped Fire and Fire was the main deity of the Sakas and Hunas.
Rajputs were Kshatriya Heroes: This theory says that the Rajputs are not from the foreign origin and they are descendents of the mythological Aryan Heroes like Rama. They worship fire as the Aryans did and worship of fire was not the tradition of the Foreigners only.
Rajputs were of Mixed Origin: This theory as put forward by V A Smith says that Rajput is a mixed race. Some of them were descendents of the Aryans while some of them were from the foreign races such as Hunas, Sakas etc.
Agnikula Legend of Rajput Origin: This theory comes from the Prithviraj raso of Chandar bardai. The Rajputs descended from Agni. The theory is based upon the Agnikula Legend of Bhavishyapu- rana which says that the forefathers of the Rajputs were born at Mount Abu. The four Rajput clans from Agnikunda are Chauhans, Chalukyas, Parmaras and Pratiharas.
THE GURJAR PRATIHARAS #
The Gurjar Pratiharas ruled much parts of the Northern India from the sixth to 11th Century AD. They find their origin from one Harichandra of Ujjain or Mandsaur. The successors of Harichandra established Marwar in Rajasthan and built the Tem- ple city of Osean, near Jodhpur.
India was saved from Arab Invasions from 7th to 11th century mainly due to prowess of the Gur- jar Pratiharas. The notable kings among the Gurjar Pratiharas were Nagabhatta-I, Nagabhatta-II and Mihirbhoja.
The territories of Nagabhatta-I (730-756 AD) ranged from Mandore (Jodhpur) to Malwa, Gwalior and Bharuch. His capital was Avanti in Malwa. During times of Nagabhatta-I, another Arab com- mander Junaid invaded India. Nagabhatta-I along with his feudatories such as Chauhans and Guhilots defended the western frontiers but the Arabs were capable of doing a lot of damage to their western Frontiers. Junaid was defeated and his successor Tamin was compelled to run back to Arab defeated and wounded. This is known as Battle of Rajasthan.
The Gurjar Pratiharas kept fighting with the Palas and Rastrakutas among others. Vatsaraja, the successor of Nagabhatta-I is known to have defeated
Dharmapala and got defeated by Rastrakuta King Dhruva.
Nagabhatta II, who succeeded Vatsaraja, was able to capture Kannauj from the Rastrakutas. Naga- bhatta II is best known for rebuilding the Somnath Temple in 815 AD, which was destroyed by Arab invaders in 725AD. This was a large structure of Red Sandstone; again destroyed in 1024AD by Mahamud of Ghazni. Mihirbhoja who ruled until 885 AD, was one of the great empire builders, who after some initial defeats conquered the territories of modern Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. The Teli Mandir at the Gwalior fort perpetuates his memory.
The beginning of the 10th century brought weakness in the Gurjar Pratiharas. The king of this dynasty was overthrown by Palas and the feudatories took the advantage and declared their independence. The major feudatories Guhilots captured Chittor and founded the Mewar Kingdom, Chauhans established the Chauhans Kingdom in Ajmer.
The Chauhans of Ajmer #
These were the feudatories of the Gurjar-Pratiha- ras; assisted Nagabhatta I in the battle of Rajasthan to protect the borders from the Arab Invasions. But in the 10th century, when Gurjara Pratiharas got weakened, the feudatories asserted their independ- ence.
The Chauhan king of Sakambhari – Ajayaraj Chauhan established a City Ajayameru, which was later known as Ajmer. His successor Vigraharaj captured Dhillika (Delhi) from the Tomar Kings and extended the empire from Ajmer to Delhi, including most parts of Today’s Haryana.
The most important successor of Ajayaraj Chauhan was Prithvi Raj Chauhan III who is known as “Chauhan King of Delhi” or “Rai Pithora”. He was a chivalrous lover and doughty champion who united Ajmer and Delhi. The daring abduction of Sanyogita, the daughter of Jaichand, the Gaharwal King of Kannauj well places him as a daring lover.
His conquest against the Solankis of Gujarat and king of Mahoba established himself as a great warrior. He was able to resist the Mohammedans invasions in the beginning, until he was defeated by Mohammad of Ghor, in 1192 AD.
CHANDELAS OF JEJAKABHUKTI OF BUNDELKHAND #
Bundelkhand was known as Jejakabhukti, which roughly corresponds to the old Mahajanapadas of Chedi. In medieval period, these countries had two dynasties named Chandelas and Kalachuris. Both of them had marital relations and were constantly in touch with each other as foes or friends.
In the ninth century, one Chandela called Nanuka overthrew the Parihara Chieftain and established the dynasty of Chandelas of Jejakabhukti. The notable kings were Dhanga, Ganda and Parmal.
Out of them, Dhanga had joined the Rajput Confederacy against Sabuktgin and shared the dis- astrous defeat in Peshawar. His son Ganda joined a new confederacy organized by Anangpala of Lahore against Mahmud Ghaznavi and shared another defeat. Another notable king was Paradidev or Parmadi.
In due course of time, the king of Kannauj made terms with Mahmud. Ganda attacked Kannauj and killed the king, and was in turn compelled to sur- render to Mahmud. Ganda surrendered the fort of Kalinjar to Mahmud.
The last notable King of this dynasty was Para- didev (Parmal) who fought Prithviraj Chauhan-III in 1182 AD in the Battle of Mahoba. This battle is the subject matter of the Alha Khand (c. 12th Century) is an early poetic work in Hindi which consists of a number of ballads describing the brave acts of two Rajput heroes, Alha and Udal. Alha and Udal were great fighters, still sung in the folk songs of Bundelkhand.
The legacy of the Chandelas of Jejakabhukti lies in the building of famous Khajuraho temples. The first king who started construction in Khaju- raho was Harsha who built the 64 Yogini Temples. The most notable prince of this dynasty was King Dhanga whose time is known for building the most beautiful Khaujraho Temples of Parsvanath and Vishwavanath. His grandson Vidyadhara built the Kandariya Mahadev Temple.
THE KALACHURIS #
The name Kalachuri is used for two dynasties. One of them ruled in Central India in Madhya Pradesh and Parts of Rajathan and other ruled in
Karnataka. The one that ruled in North India were called “Northern Kalachuris” or “Kalachuris of Chedi”.
The important ruler of this dynasty named Gangeya Deva (1015-1040) was contemporary of the Chandela king Ganda. He tried to establish the paramount power in Northern India. His suzerainty was accepted up to Tirhut. His son Karnadeva (1040- 1070AD) joined Bhima, the King of Gujarat to crush Bhoja, the Paramara King of Malwa in 1053 AD.
The Chandelas lingered as local chiefs up until the 16th century but none of them has a general importance. The Kalachuris of Chedi disappeared by the end of 12th century.
PARMARAS OF MALWA #
The Parmaras, one of the four agnikula rajputs, ruled from Dhar in Malwa from 9th century till Malwa was usurped by the Khilji Tyrrant Alauddin in 1305.
This dynasty must be noted for its “Raja Bhoj of Dhar”, the philosopher king and a polymath of the Central India. He ascended the throne of Dhar in around 1000 AD and reigned gloriously for more than 45 years. Though his path was similar to other Rajas, indulging in wasteful struggles with the neighbours but still he is noted for contribution in literature as well his strength. It is said that after plundering the Somnath, Mahamud Ghaznavi returned via Thar Desert instead of the central India route due to the fear of Bhoja’s organized army. He was defeated and destroyed by a tripartite alliance of Chalukyas, Rastrakutas and Kachhchawahas. After his death Parmaras were reduced to a local power, until they were wiped out by Akbar in 1569.
Many works on astronomy, architecture, poetry, mathematics etc. are attributed to Bhoja. Many scholars compare Bhoja with Samudragupta. Some important works of Bhoja are as follows:
- Saraswatikantabharna: A treatise on San- skrit Grammar.
- Rajmartanda: a major commentary on Patanjali’s yoga sutra.
- Samarangana Sutradhara: A Treatise on Civil Engineering.
- TattvaPrakasha: A treatise on Tantras.
- Rasarajamriganka: A treatise on chemistry (ores) and drugs.
The Bhojeshwar temple at Bhojpur near Bhopal was started by him but it remained incomplete. The Bhojpur Lake, a beautiful water body near Bhopal was built during his time by massive embankment closing the outlets in a circle of mountains was one of the greatest work of Raja Bhoj. The dam was later destroyed by Hoshang Shah.
SOLANKIS OF GUJARAT #
Solankis ruled from Anhilwara (Modern Sidhpur Patan). They were patrons of the Somnath Temple.
One chief named Mularaja who reigned from 942 to 996 AD established the dynasty. The Mula- raja period is known as beginning of the Gujarati Culture, language and script. Raja Bhoj of Dhar overshadowed the successors of Mularaja and they were reduced to vassals of the Malwa Kingdom.
One important ruler of this dynasty was Bhim- dev I who reigned from 1022-1063 AD. He was a vassal of the Malwa King Bhoj. When Mahamud Ghaznavi attacked Somnath, he fled and took shelter in Kutch. It was Raja Bhoj that chased Mahmud and Mahamud returned via the Thar Deserts.
When Raja Bhoj died, Bhimdev declared himself independent. Karnadeva succeeded Bhimdev. All other successors were less important. The Solanki dynasty lost control over Gujarat in 1243 and in 1297; the Delhi Sultanate conquered Gujarat.
THE PALA EMPIRE OF BENGAL, BIHAR , ORISSA #
Palas were most important empire builders in eastern India in early medieval India. These people were pious Buddhists.
The founder of this dynasty was Gopala who incidentally was also the “First Buddhist King” of Bengal. He was able to subdue Bengal and most parts of Bihar. He constructed a monastery at the Odantapuri in Bihar.
Gopala’s son Dharamapala (770-810 AD) became the most dominant power in the Northern and Eastern India. He altogether fought with Gurjar Pratiharas, Rastrakutas and Chalukyas. After an initial career full of defeats, including a humiliating
defeat in the hands of Nagabhatta II, he was able to win the entire Bihar and Bengal. The Kings of Kannauj, Madra, Kamboja, parts of Rajputana were his Vassals.
Dharamapala was a pious Buddhist King and is best known for establishing the Vikramshila Univer- sity. The Vikramshila University is located at Kahal- gaon near Bhagalpur in Bihar. Dharampala had also built a Vihara at Somapuri, another at Paharpur and yet another Vihara at Odantapuri. The five places viz. Nalanda, Vikramshila, Somapuri, Paharpur and Odantapuri are called Five Mahaviharas. Bakhtiyar Khilji destroyed the Vikramshila University in 1200 AD. Somapura Mahavihara is now located in Bang- ladesh. It is one of the best known Mahaviharas of Buddhism in Indian subcontinent and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Atisa Dipankara was a Buddhist Scholar during the Pala dynasty and was a scholar at the Vikram- shila University. He established the Sarma lineages of the Buddhism with Konchog Gyalpo and Marpa Lotsawa. The most important work of Atisa is Bodhipathapradîpa. Apart from this around 79 extant compositions on Buddhism are ascribed to Atisa.
Charyapada is a collection of Buddhist poems composed most probably during the Pala Dynasty (However, there are various controversies on the origin). These mystic poems are from the tantric tradtion. The writers of Charyapada are called Mahasiddhas and they were from Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Assam. Charyapada is the earliest exam- ple of the Bengal Poetry and Bengali literature.
The successor of Dharmapala was Devapala, who conquered the Kamarupa, Pragjyotisha (Assam) and Utkal (Orissa). There are evidences that Devap- ala procured Horses from the Kamboja / Kabul for his army. During his time, Pala Empire emerged as one of the greatest empire. But his successors were inefficient and lost many territories.
The last notable Pala king was Mahipala, who was 9th in order from Gopala. He is second founder of the Pala Dynasty, able to recover the lost territo- ries of his predecessors. Mahipala 50 year reign was peaceful except some defeats from Cholas. In the evening of his life he turned religious and did some excellent social works. None of the successors of Mahipala was a significant ruler, the Pala empire got
disintegrated and finally swept away by the torrents of the Mohammedans invasions.
Sandhyakar Nandi was the composer of the great epic poem in Sanskrit named Ramacharitam during the Pala Empire.
THE SENA DYNASTY #
Around the time of Mahipala’s death in around 1043 AD, a vassal of the Palas named Hemanta Sen founded the Sena Dynasty. Vijayasena (1097-1160) is called as real founder of the Sena Dynasty. He was able to snatch away parts of Rarh region of Bengal from the Palas and some parts of Gauda Kingdom from the Assam regions.
His son Ballala Sena (1160-1178) introduced the social reforms in Bengal known as Kulinism.
MAHAMUD GHAZNAVI & RAJPUT CONFEDERACY #
Sabuktgin founded the Ghaznavid Empire, a strategic empire located between Kabul and Kandhar in Modern Afghanistan.
In 977 AD Sabuktgin captured Kandahar and prompted the Shahi King Jayapala to launch a strike against the rising Ghaznavid Empire, who was defeated. In 1001, Sabuktgin son Mahamud came in Power and once more, Jayapala attacked the Ghaznavid but defeated.
After Jayapala committed suicide, his son Anand- pala prepared an alliance with six rulers of (Ujjain, Gwalior, Kalinjar, Kannauj, Delhi and Ajmer). This was known as Rajput Confederacy. The combined army of the Rajput Confederacy met in 1008 near Peshawar. The Rajput army was initially victorious but an elephant of Anandapala began to run away from the battlefield. There was a stampede in the Rajput army and Mahamud won this fierce battle. He was now undisputed ruler of Punjab, Multan and Sindh.
After that, Mahmud raided Nagarkot in 1009, Thaneshwar in 1011, Kannauj, Meerut and Mathura in 1017. In 1021 the Mahmud attacked the last Shahi King Trilochanpala. The defeated Hindu king fled to Ajmer. Mahmud appointed first Muslim Governor in the east of Indus River. His own people later assassinated Trilochanpala in 1023 AD.
In 1024 Mahamud once again raided Ajmer, Kalinjar, Gwalior and Finally Somnath. The temple was destroyed. He returned via Thar Desert to avoid the armies of Raja Bhoj, though the Jats confronted him en route. During his last invasion, he got Malaria and died in 1030 AD.
Objective of Invasions of Mahamud:The main objective of Mahmud Ghaznavi’s invasions was the wealth of the Indians. However, being an ardent Sunni Muslim, he was called the “Idol Breaker” and eagerly destroyed the temples of Jwalamukhi, Kan- gra, Mathura, Somnath etc. Each time he returned with enormous wealth but it is clear that there was no permanent impact of his attacks on India.
Reasons of Failure of Rajputs: The Rajputs, though courageous and zealous were suffering from the political myopia and could not estimate the dan- gers coming their way. They adopted and followed the epic era rules and customs of war such as not attacking the fleeing enemy, not attacking the enemy with no arms etc. The invaders took advantages of this lack of political foresight of the Rajputs and the result was that within a century, all the Hindu dynasties of the country were swept away by the torrent of the Muslims.
MOHAMMAD GHORI #
In 1161, Ghiyasuddin Ghori became chief of Ghor and with his accession, the Afghan highlanders entered into a new phase of activity. He recovered Ghazni and placed his brother Muhammad Ghori on the ruined throne of Mahmud.
Muhammad Ghori led a series of the cam- paigns in India which recalled the days of Mahmud Ghaznavi, 200 years back. The important battles were as follows:
The first battle was with the muslim ruler of Multan in 1175. Mohammad was winner.
Second Battle was with Raja Bhimdev II (Solanki) of Gujarat in 1178. This was called Bat- tle of Kayadara near Mount Abu. Raja Bhimdev II was a young men and real regent was his mother Naikidevi. Naikidevi inflicted such a major defeat to Muhammad Ghori that this invasion became Muhammad’s first and last attack on India from the Gujarat side. He never turned to Gujarat later on.
Third battle was in 1179 with Khusrau Malik of Peshawar. Khsurau mailk was the last successor of Mahmud, who was a weak , gentle king , who submitted to Ghori easily and gave his son as a Slave to him.
Fourth notable battle was the First Battle of Tarain 1191. He lost one of his teeth but saved his life. A Turkic retainer mounted on the horse behind him carried him off the field.
Fifth battle was the Second Battle of Tarain 1192 in which army of Rajput chiefs was slaugh- tered. Prithviraj mounted himself on a horse and fled but was captured and taken to Ghazni.
The cities of Ajmer, Hansi, Saraswati, Samana etc. faced a ruthless slaughter; there was a general destruction of temples and idols. The throne of Ajmer was left to Gola, a son of the late Raja as a vassal of Sultan, on the condition of regular tributes. Delhi was soon captured.
Under his general Qutub-ud-din, his armies sacked Ayodhya in 1193 and in 1204 he defeated Lakshaman Sena of Sena dynasty in Bengal, but Bengal was not conquered.
What happened to Prithviraj Chauhan after the second battle of Tarain, is a mystery. Some sources say that Muhammad Ghori executed Chauhan soon, while other says that it was Prithviraj Chauhan who first assassinated Mohammad Ghori and then was killed by his men. Today, on the outskirts of Ghazni are two domed tombs. The larger was of Ghori and few meters away were a second smaller tomb of Prithviraj Chauhan. “In the centre of the second tomb was a bare patch of earth where the actual grave should have been. Hanging over this spot from the top of the dome is a long, thick rope ending in a knot at shoulder eight. Local visitors would grab hold of this knot in one hand and stamp vigorously and repeatedly with one foot on the bare patch in the centre of the tomb,” It is said that by doing so the locals vent their anger for killing Muhammad Ghori.
Other sources say that in 1206, there was a rebellion in Punjab. Mohammad returned from Ghazni and crushed the rebels, but when he was returning, the Khokhars killed him at Jhelum.
