Vedic Culture

INTRODUCTION #

The Vedic period was in stark contest to the Harapan Civilization. Origin of the Vedic people is still debatable. Though, this phase gradually marked the territorial expansion of the Aryan Cul- ture throughout the Indian mainland. Vedas formed the basic literary source and gives account of the socio-political, economic, cultural and life styles of the vedic people, both Rig Vedic and later Vedic. Vedas also from the foundation of the spiritual and meta physical guide to the Aryan way of life.

Veda means ‘to know’ or ‘knowledge’. In Sanskrit, Vidya is Knowledge and it derived from Veda. Veda does not mean to be the mantras or Samhita or sholkas only. It is the ‘realization of the ultimate knowledge and conscience’. The founders of the Vedic culture were the Aryans, probably an immigrant people, whose first arrival in India is dated between 2000 and 1500 BC. After settling in India the Aryans composed a series of religious hymns, which were eventually compiled into a text known as Rig-Veda. Our knowledge of the Aryans in India dur- ing this earliest period is based primarily Rig-Veda.

Our knowledge of the Vedic Civilization is based upon the information derived from the Vedic literature. It consists of 4 Vedas and brahmanas. The Rig-Veda is the most ancient, covering a period from 1500 BC to 1000 BC and is called Early Vedic Civilization.

ARYANS: A RACE OR LINGUISTIC GROUP? #

Aryans a Linguistic Group #

It was initially proposed by the German scholar Max Muller that Aryans belonged to a race. How-

ever, he later detracted and declared emphatically that the term Aryans, in scientific language, is utterly inapplicable to race. Aryan means language and nothing but language. It is now accepted that Aryan was not a race but was basically a linguistic group.

Sanskrit was the language of Aryans #

In 1786, Sir William Jones, in his famous address to the Asiatic society of Bengal, tried to prove a definite relation between the Vedic Sanskrit and some of the principle languages of Europe and Asia such as Greek, Latin, Gothic, Celtic, Lithu- anian, German , Persian, etc. The scholars have given a common name Indo-European to this group of languages and the people speaking them were known as the Indo-Europeans or Indo-Aryans.

What is a Classical Language? High antiq- uity of its early texts/recorded history over a period of 1500-2000 years. A body of an- cient literature/texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by generations of speak- ers. The literary tradition be original and not borrowed from another speech community. The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots.

On this basis, it has been surmised that Aryans spoke the common language and shared the common home, dispersed or emigrated to various parts of the world, including India.

The Aryan migration of India is recorded in no written document, and it cannot yet be traced archaeologically, although recently some advance have been achieved in this respect. It is nevertheless

firmly established as a historical fact on the basis of comparative philogy.

The Indo-European languages of which Sanskrit in its Vedic form, is one of the oldest members, originated outside India, and the only possible way by which a language belonging to this family could be carried all the way to India was the migration of the people speaking it. Sanskrit is one of the 22 languages of India included in the 8th schedule. In 2005, Sanskrit was made India’s official classical language. The first classical language was Tamil, which was given this status in 2004. India has 4 official classical languages “Tamil (2004), Sanskrit (2005), Kannada & Telugu (2008). Sanskrit is pri- mary literary language of Hinduism and early texts of Buddhism The Classical Sanskrit is recorded dat- ing back to 4th century BC (Panini’s Grammar). The Pre Classical Sanskrit is Vedic Sanskrit in which the oldest literature dates back to as old as 1500 BC. Sanskrit is a descendent of Proto Indo-European languages. Avesta which is the oldest Zoroastrian Text has shown some similarity with Rig Veda.

THE ORIGINAL HOME CONTROVERSY #

It has long been a matter of controversy as to what region the Indo-Europeans inhabited before the arrival of one or more of their branches to India. The original home of Aryans has been figured out by different scholars as follows:

• Max Muller – Central Asia.
• Swami Dayanand Saraswati – Tibet.
• Mayor – Pamir’s.
• Hurz Feld – Turkistan.
• J C Rod – Bactria.
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak – Polar Regions.

Some historians tried to prove that the Vedic Aryans were neither foreigners nor did they migrated into India, but were the indigenous people, who regarded Sapta Sindhu as their original home. But this view has been rejected that if India been the original home of he Aryans they would have certainly tried to fully Aryanize the whole of this subcontinent before crossing the frontier barrier for some other lands.

Besides, the vast disparities between the Hara-

ppan and Vedic cultures further prove that Aryans were not indigenous people.

Consensus of the Opinion #

The consensus of opinion is that the original homeland of the Aryans was somewhere in central Asia. In the beginning, they were settled somewhere in Iran and the central Asian regions bordering the Oxus and the Jaxartes (Greek name of a large river in Central Asia now known as Syr darya ) and the Aral and Caspian seas, and they are now known as Indo-Iranians. From this base, sections of them may be presumed to have pushed up into the highlands of Afghanistan, and then to have descended from this base into the plains of the Punjab.

Boghazkoi Inscriptions #

As evidence that the Aryans originated some- where in Central Asia, the Boghazkoi Inscriptions are important because these inscription mention the name of the Vedic gods and goddesses. It has been concluded that about the middle of second millennium BC, Aryan tribes which worshipped Vedic gods must have already been established in north-western India for a very considerable time, and several of these tribes had migrated far back to west as early as about 1400 BC.

Sapta Sindhu #

Most of the Rig-Veda civilization was centred on the River Saraswati which is now lost in Deserts of Rajasthan. The Rig-Veda mentions rivers Kabul, Swat, Kurram, Gumal, Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej etc. which proves that the settlements were in Afghanistan and Punjab as well. The cradle of Rig-Vedic civilization is called Sapt Saidhav Region. Sapta-Sindhu meaning 7 rivers is the term which gave birth to the word “Hindu”. Sapta-Sindhu was referred to as Hapta-Hindu by Persians etc. The term is found in Avesta of Zoroastrians.

Scholars are not of same opinion on the names and identity of the seven rivers of Sapta Sindhu. There is a verse in Nadistuti sukta of Rigveda , hymn of praise of rivers which mentions the following 10 rivers: Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati, Sutudri, Parusni, Asikni, Marudvrdha , Vitasta , Arjikiya , Susoma.

The Shutudri was Sutlej, Parushni was Ravi, Asikni was Chenab and Vitasta was Jhelum. The

majority of the scholars believe that Sindhu & Sar- aswati (located in Rajasthan) were the most popular and sacred rivers of that era. Some scholars are of the opinion that the hymns in praise of the Saraswati are probably some of the oldest, composed more than 8000 years ago. The 5 rivers Sutudri, Parusni, Asikni, Vitasta, Vipas all were tributaries of Sindhu River. Together with Sarasawti and Sindhu, these

5 rivers constituted the Sapta Sindhu. However Saraswati has been mentioned as saptasvasa, which means she with 7 sisters. So, This further leads to a group of 8 Rivers.

Archaeological Evidences in context with Aryans #

The intial knowledge about the dispersal of Aryan groups was based only on comparative philol- ogy. Later some small archeological information has been found which includes the 60 thousand horse bones and some chariots. Horse was the best friend of Aryans and it made them able to make inroads in Asia. Archaeological evidence of the horse and horse specific have been unearthed in southern Tajikistan and in the Swat valley in Pakistan. Then, the grey pottery of the North East Iran is also one of the representative evidence of arrival of Aryans, because the Caspian region was the place where the grey pottery independently originated.

VEDIC LITERATURE #

The Vedas are said to have been passed on from one generation to the next through verbal transmis- sion and are, therefore, also known as Shruti (to hear) or revelation. The term Vedic literature means the four Vedas in their Samhita and the allied litera- ture based on or derived from the Vedas. We classify the Vedic literature into the following categories:

• The four Vedas i.e. the Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva and their Samhitas.
• The Brahmanas attached to each Samhita.
• The Aranyakas.
• The Upanishads.

The basic material or mantra text of each of the Vedas is called “Samhita”. Some post Vedic texts are also known as “Samhitas” such as Ashta- vakra Gita, Bhrigu Samhita, Brahma Samhita, Deva

Samhita, Garga Samhita, Kashyap Samhita, Shiva Samhita and Yogayajnavalkya Samhita.

Shruti and Smriti #

The Vedic literature is broadly divided into two categories viz. Shruti and Smriti.

Shruti is “that which has been heard” and is canonical, consisting of revelation and unquestiona- ble truth, and is considered eternal. Shruti describes the sacred texts comprising the central canon of Hinduism viz. Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, & Upanishads.

Smiriti literally means “that which is remem- bered, supplementary and may change over time”. It is authoritative only to the extent that it conforms to the bedrock of Shruti and it is entire body of the post Vedic Classical Sanskrit literature. It comprises Vedanga, Shaddarsana, Puranas, Itihasa, Upveda, Tantras, Agamas, Upangas.

There is another post Vedic class of Sanskrit literature called Epics which includes Ramayana and Mahabharta.

It’s worth note that, there is not a distinct divide between Shruti and Smriti. Both Shruti and Smriti can be represented as a continuum, with some texts more canonical than others.

The Shruti Literature #

Rig-Veda #

Rig-Veda is known as the oldest religious text in the world. It is also known as “First testament” of mankind. It was composed around 1700 BC. Last hymns were composed between 1500-1200 BC. It’s a collection of hymns by a number of priest families. It is organized in 10 books which are called Man- dalas. The first and 10th Mandalas are the youngest and the longest books. Second to Seventh Mandalas are oldest parts of Rig-Veda but the shortest books. 8th and 9th books are of mixed ages.

Rig-Veda is neither a historical nor a heroic poem but is mainly a collection of hymns by a number of priestly families. These were recited at the time of sacrificial rites and other rituals with utmost devotion. The Rig-Veda contains 1017 (1028, including 11 hymns of the Valakhilya recession) hymns (Sukta) and is divided into ten mandalas. The

first and the tenth Mandalas are said to have been added later as their language differs slightly from the other eight Mandalas.

Origin of the Varnas and the Rig-Veda #

Please note that Varna system is of later Vedic origin. The tenth mandala, which was added later to the Rig-Veda, contains the famous Purushasukta which explains that the four Varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra) were born from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the primeval being Brahma (Purusa).

Some facts about Rig-Veda #

• The Famous ‘Gayatri mantra’ is in Rig Veda Mandala 3.
• Each mandala consists of Suktas which are basically eulogies.
• Rig-Veda has two recensions or Branches.
• The major surviving branch is Úâkalya. Another branch is Bâskala or Vatkal.
• The first word of Rig-Veda is Agni. Hymn

1.1 is addressed to Agni.

• Mandala 9 is completely devoted to Soma.
• Nasadiya Sukta which talks about the origin of the Universe is in 10th Mandala. It begins by paradoxically stating “not the non-exist- ent existed, nor did the existent exist then” and has attracted large body of literature of commentaries both in Indian theology and in Western philology.

Yajurveda #

“Yajus” means “sacrificial formula” and Yajurveda is the book of sacrificial prayers. It con- tains the rituals of the Yajnas. It is estimated to have been composed between 1400 BC and 1000 BC.

It prescribes the rituals for performing different sacrifices. It was the manual of the Adhvaryus. Adhvarus were the people prepared the ground and the altar, offered the sacrificial victims and poured out the libations.

There are two distant forms of this Veda. In the oldest, the instructions about rituals are mingled with the verses from the Rig-Veda. The chief reces- sion of this is that taught by a school of teachers

called the Taitttiriyans. This was called Black Yajurveda. At a later date other scholars called the Vajasaneyins separated the explanatory matter from the verses to be recited and hence were called white (Shukla) Yajur-Veda, the other being called the black (Krishna) Yajur Veda.

This implies that the Krishna Yajurveda includes the Brahmana prose discussions within the Samhita (no Brahman) while the Shukla Yajurveda has sep- arately a Brahmana text, the Shatapatha Brahmana.

Please note that world’s oldest prose literature of the Indo-Europeans is contained in Yajurveda.

Sam Veda #

“Saman” means melody and it contains the Ryth- mic compilation of Hymns for Rigveda. It ranks next in sanctity and liturgical importance to the Rigveda. It contains 1549 hymns which are meant to be sung at the soma sacrifice by a special class of Brahmans called “Udgatris”. It has three shakhas or recensions:

• Kauthuma : Panchvish Brahmana.
• The Jaiminiya : jaiminiya Brahmana.
• Râvâyanîya : Shadvish Brahmana.

There are two Aranyakas : Chadogya Aranyaka and jaiminiya Aranyaka. Chadogya Aranyaka has Chadogya Upnishad and Jaiminiya Aranyaka has Jaiminiya Upnishad. Gandharva veda is Samveda’s Upveda is is a technical treatise on Music, Dance and Drama. It is also called Natya Shashtra.

Atharva Veda #

Atharva Veda is entirely different from the other three Vedas and is chronologically the last of the four. It is important and interesting as it describes the popular beliefs and superstitions of the humble folk. Atharvaveda contains the magic spells, incorporates much of early traditions of healing and magic that are paralleled in other Indo-European literatures.

For a very long time it was not included in the category of the Vedas.‘Atharvan’ was a legendary Rishi and is considered to have sung the Atharva veda. He is also said to have first instituted the fire-sacrifice or yagna. Atharvaveda was mainly composed by two groups of rishis known as the Atharvanas and the Angirasa.

There are two surviving recensions or Shakhas known as Úaunakîya (AVS) and Paippalâda (AVP).

• Gopath   Brahmana   is    the    Brahmana   of Yajurveda.
• There are three Upnishads viz. Prasna, Mundaka and Mandukya.
• Satyamev Jayate’, India’s Motto comes from Mundaka Upanishad.

Brahmanas #

The Brahmanas are the prose texts which explain the hymns in the Vedas, give explanation and applications and related stories of their origin. They also have some stories related to the certain persons related to the Vedic Text.

The following diagram shows the Brahmans of Vedas.

Following is the list of Brahmans:

●    Rig-Veda: #

• Aitareya Brahmana: Sometimes it is also known as Ashvalayana Brahmana. It is older than Kaushitaki in style and con- tent. The legendary author ascribed for this Brahmana is Mahidas Aitareya. It is of Shakala shakhas of Rig-Veda
  • Kaushitaki Brahmana: It is of the Vat- kal or Bashkala shakhas of Rig-Veda and sometimes also known as Úânkhâyana Brahmana. It is younger in content and style.

●    Samveda #

• Panchavisha.
  • Shadvisha.
  • Jaiminiya.

●    Yajurveda #

• Kathaka Brahmana
  • Krishna. The Brahmanas are integrated into the samhitas:
    • Maitrayani.
    • Charakakatha.
    • Kapisthalakatha.
  • Taittiriya Brahmana.
  • Shatapatha Brahmana.

●    Atharvaveda #

• Gopatha Brahmana.

Aranyakas #

The Aranyakas were written in Forests and are concluding parts of the Brahmans. Aranyakas don’t lay much emphasis on rites, ritual and sacrifices but have philosophy and mysticism. So they have moral science and philosophy. It also provides the details of the rishis who lived in jungles.

Aranyakas were written mainly for the hermits and students living in the jungles. Please note that Aranyakas are the concluding portion of the Brah- manas or their appendices. They lay emphasis not on sacrifices but on meditation. They are in fact, opposed to sacrifices and many of the early rituals. Their stress is on moral values. They form a bridge between way of work (karma marga) which was the sole concern of the Brahmanas and the way of knowledge (gyan marga) which the Upanishads advocated.

The Aitareya Aranyaka is appended to the Aitar- eya Brahmana of the Rig-Veda. The Sankhyayana or Kaushitaki Aranyaka is the concluding portion of the Kaushitaki Brahmana of the Rig-Veda.

In the black Yajur Veda, the Taittriya Aranyaka is only a continuation of the Taitttriya Brahamana. In the white Yajur Veda, the 14th book of the Sat- apatha Brahmana is in name only an Aranyaka- the Brihdarnayaka.

For the Sama Veda, the only Aranyakas are the first Aranyaka-like sections of the Chhandogya Upanishad, which belongs to the Tandyamaha Brah- mana, and the Jaimniya Upanishad Brahmana, which is nothing but an Aranyaka of the Jaiminiya or Tala- vakara school of the Sama Veda and comprises the well Known ‘Kena (or Talvakra) Upanishad’.

There are no Aranyakas of Atharva veda.

The Upanishads #

The word Upanishad means to sit down near someone and denotes a student sitting near his guru to learn. Eventually the word began to be used for the secret knowledge imparted by the guru to his selected pupils. A number of treatises were prepared, first orally and then in writing, and were called by

the same name of Upanishad. Today, Upanishads specify philosophical knowledge and spiritual learning.

The main motto of the Upanishads is “Knowl- edge Awards Salvation”.

Upanishads are called Vedanta (the end of the Veda) firstly, because they denote the last phase of the Vedic period and secondly, because they reveal the final aim of the Veda. The Oldest Upanishads are Brihadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads which date as back as the first millennium BC. Latest were composed in the medieval and early modern period. The latest Upanishad is Muktikâ Upanishad and was recorded by Dara Shikoh.It dates to 1656. Dara Shi- koh was son of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and is known to have translated fifty Upanishads into Persian. There are 108 Upanishads and they are also called Vedanga. “Upa” means nearby and “sada” means sit. So Upanishads contain the knowledge imparted by the gurus to their disciples.

There are 108 Upanishad. 11 are predominant and they are called “Mukhya Upanishads”. They are as follows:

Aitareya Upanishad #

Aitareya Upanishad should be noted for one of the 4 Mahavakyas viz. “Prajanam Brahama” or “Consciousness is Brahman”.

The Four Mahavakyas of Vedas #

• Prajnanam Brahma – “Consciousness is Brah- man” (Aitareya Upanishad of the Rig Veda)
• Ayam Atma Brahma – “This Self (Atman) is Brahman” (Mandukya Upanishad of the Atharva Veda)
• Tat Tvam Asi – “Thou art That” (Chandogya Upanishad of the Sama Veda)
• Aham Brahmasmi – “I am Brahman” (Bri- hadaranyaka Upanishad of the Yajur Veda)

Brhadâranyaka Upanishad #

It is contained in the Shatpath Brahman. It contains the following Famous Shloka:

vlrks ek lnxeZ; relks ek T;ksfrxeZ; e`R;ksj~ ek ve`ra xe;

¬ ‘kkafr ‘kkafr ‘kkafr cânkj.;d mifuekn 1.3.28

The meaning of the above Shloka is : ‘Lead Us From the Unreal To the Real, Lead Us From Dark- ness To Light, Lead Us From Death To Immortality, OM , Let There Be Peace Peace Peace’.

Taittirîya Upanaishad #

This Upanishada is associated with the Taittiriya school of the Yajurveda. The Taittiriya Upanishad describes the various degrees of happiness enjoyed by the different beings in creation

Chândogya Upanishad #

This Upanishad is associated with the Kauthuma Shakha of the Samaveda. Along with Brihadaran- yaka Upanishad, the Chandogyopanishad is an ancient source of principal fundamentals of Vedanta philosophy.

Kena Upanisahda #

“Ken” literally means ‘by whom’. It belongs to the Talavakara Brahmana of Sama Veda and is therefore also referred to as Talavakara Upanishad.

Îsa Upanishad #

It is one of the latest Mukhya Upanishads, dating approximately to Mauryan times.

Úvetâúvatara Upanishad #

Upanishads are sources of serious philosophical thought. However, this Upanishad differs from other Upanishads by explaining the same principles in a very simple, easy-going and poetic way.

Kathopnishad #

It was translated by Max Müller in 1879. It was rendered in verse by Edwin Arnold as “The Secret of Death”. The central story is immortality and covers the story of encounter of Nachiketa, son of sage Vajasravasa, with Yama, God of death.

Muktika #

This Upanishad deals with the Para Vidya and Apara Vidya. The Para Vidya is knowledge that leads to Self Realization. Apara Vidya deals with everything else or the material knowledge. Mundaka Upanishad is notable as the source of the phrase ‘Satyameva jayate’ (3.1.6)

Mândûkya #

Mandukya is the Shortest Upnishad. It contains twelve verses expounding the mystic syllable ‘Aum’, the three psychological states of waking, dreaming and sleeping, and the transcendent fourth state of illumination.

Praœna #

Six pupils interested in knowing divinity or Brahman come to sage Pippalada and requests him to clarify their spiritual doubts. Therefore, this Upni- shad is in Question Answer format.

The Smriti Literature #

Vedanga #

Vedangas are six auxiliary disciplines associated with the study and understanding of the Vedas. They are as follows:

Shiksha (Phonetics) #

Its aim is the teaching of the correct pro- nunciation of the Vedic hymns and mantras. The oldest phonetic textbooks are the Pratishakyas (prâtiúâkhya), describing pronunciation, intonation of Sanskrit, as well as the Sanskrit rules of sandhi (word combination), specific to individual schools or Shakhas of the Vedas.

Kalpa (Ritual Canon) #

It contains the sacrificial practice and systematic sutras. There are three kinds of Sutras part of Kalpa.

Úrautasûtras, which are based on the Shruti, and teach the performance of the great sacrifices, requiring three or five sacrificial fires.

Smartasûtras, or rules based on the Smriti or tradition. The Smartasûtras have two classes viz.

• Grhyasutras, or domestic rules: They are basically treating the rites of passage, such as marriage, birth, name giving, etc., connected with simple offerings into the domestic fire.
• Dharmasutras or customs and social duties: The Dharmasûtras are the first four texts of the Dharmasastra tradition and they focus on the idea of dharma, the principal guide by which Hindus strive to live their lives. The Dharmasûtras are written in concise prose,

leaving much up to the educated reader to interpret.The most important of these texts are the sutras of Âpastamba, Gautama, Baud- hâyana, and Vasicmha. The Dharmasûtras can be called the guidebooks of dharma as they contain the rules of conduct and rites as prac- ticed in the Vedic schools. They discuss about the duties of people at different stages of life like studenthood, householdership, retirement and renunciation. These stages are also called âúramas. They also discuss about the rites and duties of kings, judicial matters, and even personal practices like the regulations in diet, offenses and expiations, daily oblations, and funerary practice.

Vyakaran (Grammar) #

Vyakaran includes the Astadhyayi of Panini. Most of the work of very early Indian grammarians ranging to 8th century BC is lost. There are 4 parts of Panini’s Grammar:

Nirukta (explanation) #

It is traditionally attributed to Yâska, an ancient Sanskrit grammarian. It deals with etymology, par- ticularly of obscure words, especially those occurring in the Veda

Chhanda (Vedic meter) #

It measures and divides Vedic Mantras by number of padas in a verse, which is called Padas. Number of padas divides each verse, hymn, or man- tra and number of syllables divides each pada. There is a distinct taxonomy on this basis. For example a Gayatri Chhanda has 3 padas of 8 syllables contain- ing 24 syllables in each stanza. Similarly, Anucmup has 4 padas of 8 syllables containing 32 syllables in each stanza. Anustup is the typical shloka of classical Sanskrit poetry

Jyotisha (Astrology) #

It describes rules for tracking the motions of the sun and the moon and the foundation of Vedic Jyotish.

Shatdarshana #

Shatdarshana are 6 orthodox schools of Hindu Philosophy. They are as follows:

School	Author	Beginning	Main Book
Nyaya	Gautama	6th century BC	Nyayasutra
Vaisheshika Sutra	Kanaad	6th century BC	Vaisheshik
Sankya	Kapil	6th century BC	Sankya Sutra
Yoga	Maharishi Patanjali	2nd century BC	Yog Sutra
Poorva Mimansa	Jaimini	4th century BC	Poorva Mimansa Sutra
Uttar Mimansa or Vedanta	Badrayan or Maharishi Vyas	4th century BC	Poorva Sutra

Nyaya #

Literally means recursion. It is based on texts known as the Nyaya Sutras, which were written by Aksapada Gautama from around the 2nd century AD. The basic theme of this darshana is acquiring the Valid Knowledge. The system is based upon Logic. On this basis, the knowledge can be valid or invalid.

The followers of Nyaya believed that obtaining valid knowledge was the only way to obtain release from suffering. They therefore took great pains to identify valid sources of knowledge and to distin- guish these from mere false opinions.

Vaisheshika #

Vaisheshsika is a kind of Atomism. It was proposed by Maharishi Kanaad. It postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of atoms. The school deals in detail with “Padarth” or Matter. Vaisheshika system developed independently from the Nyaya, but the two eventually merged because of their closely related theories. In its classical form, however, the Vaishesika school differed from the Nyaya in one crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaishesika accepted only perception and inference.

Please note that Vaisheshika is also different from the Modern Atomic Theory because Vaishe- shika says that the behaviour of the atoms is guided by the Supreme being.

The Vaisheshika School classified the matter or padartha into six categories:

Dravya (substance): There are nine substances viz. prithvî (earth), ap (water), tejas (fire), vâyu (air), âkaúa (ether), kâla (time), dik (space), âtman (self) and manas (mind). The first five are called bhûtas (Panchabhutas) the substances having some specific qualities so that they could be perceived by one or the other external senses.

Karma (activity): Activity is a feature of the some of the Dravyas. Âkâúa (ether), kâla (time), dik (space) and âtman (self), though substances, are devoid of karma (activity)

Sâmânya (generality): When a property is found common to many substances, it is called sâmânya.

Samavâya (inherence): Samavaya is basically cause and the effect by two substances. According to Praúastapâda, it is the relationship existing between the substances that are inseparable, standing to one another in the relation of the container and the contained.

One more category was later added called abhâva (non-existence). Here, the first three categories are defined as artha (which can perceive) and they have real objective existence. The last three categories are defined as budhyapekcam (product of intellectual discrimination) and they are logical categories.

Samkhya #

Samkhya means Enumeration. The founder of the Samkhya school of Philosophy was Maharishi Kapil. There is some distinct feature of this phi- losophy:

It strongly proponents Dualism. There are only two realities viz. Purusha and Prakriti.

By Purusha, they mean Consciousness and by Prakriti, they mean substance or realm of matter.

Jiva or life is that state in which Purushais bonded to prakriti through the glue of desire, and the end of this bondage is moksha.

The above three points lead to the conclusion that this school does not believe in the existence of God.

At the same point, it does not describe what hap- pens after moksha and does not mention anything

about Ishwara or God, because after liberation there is no essential distinction of individual and universal Purusha. So what happens after Moksha is irrelevant thing for this school.

This philosophy adversely affected the Tantra sadhana a lot.

Please note that Sankya School of philosophy, the dualism consists of fundamental difference between consciousness and matter. It is different from the dualism in west, because in that the dual- ism differentiates between mind and body.

Yoga #

Yuj means “control” and Yoga also mean to “add”. This philosophy is very close to Samkhya and can be easily distinguished as Yoga= Samkhya

+ Divinity.

Thus, yoga school accepts the samkhya or, phi- losphy and metaphysics, but is more theistic than the samkhya, because it also includes the divine entity to the samkhya’s elements of reality.

Patanjali is widely regarded as the compiler of the formal yoga philosophy. The yoga philosophy of Patanjali is also known as Raja Yoga. The other branches include Karma Yoga, Gayana Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, and Hatha Yoga.

Raja Yoga is a system for control of the mind. As per Patanjali, Yoga is defined as, which means that Yoga is the inhibition of the modifications of the mind. Swami Vivekananda translated the sutra as “Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff from taking various forms”.

Ashtanga Yoga #

The Yogasutras of Patanjali later became the basis of Ashtanga Yoga. This eight-limbed concept derived from Patanajali’s Yogasutra is a core charac- teristic of practically every Raja yoga variation that is practiced today. These eight limbs are as follows:

Five Yama: Yama refers to the five “absten- tions”. These abstentions are Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (Truth, nonlying), Asteya (non-covetousness), Brahmacharya (non-sensuality, celibacy), and Aparigraha (non-possessiveness).

Five Niyama: The Niyama refers to five “observances”. These are Shaucha (purity), Santosha

(contentment), Tapas (austerity), Svadhyaya (study of the Vedic scriptures to know about God and the soul), and Ishvara-Pranidhana (surrender to God).

Asana: Asana means to be seated. Patanjali’s Sutras refers to the seated positioused for meditation.

Pranayama (“Suspending Breath”): Prâna, breath, “âyâma”, to restrain or stop. Also interpreted as control of the life force.

Pratyahara (“Abstraction”): Withdrawal of the mind or senses from an object or event.

Dharana (“Concentration”): Fixing the atten- tion on a single object.

Dhyana (“Meditation”): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation.

Samadhi (“Liberation”): merging conscious- ness with the object of meditation.

Hathayoga #

The Yogasutras of Patanjali which mainly postu- late the Raj Yoga, date back to Mauryan Period while Hathayoga was introduced by Yogi Swatmarama.

The major difference between Raj Yoga and Hathayoga is that Raja Yoga aims at controlling all thought-waves or mental modifications, while a Hatha Yogi starts his Sadhana, or spiritual practice, with Asanas (postures) and Pranayama. So Raj Yoga starts from Mind and Hathyoga starts from Body.

Mimansa #

Mimansa means investigation or enquiry. The primary enquiry is into the nature of dharma based on close theology of the Vedas. It has two divi- sions, Purva Mimansa and Uttar Mimansa. Poorva Mimansa is ancient.

Dharma, Karma and Rta #

The Mimansa philosophy says that the dharma is not accessible to reason or observation, instead, it must be inferred from the authority of the Vedas, which are considered eternal, authorless, and infal- lible. This implies that rather than paying attention to God exists not, this philosophy focuses on the character of the Dharma.

In this way, Dharma is also fundamentally different from the Rig-Vedic Rta or Rita which

is a principle of natural order which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it. While Dharma and Karma are related to each other, Rita is described as that which is ultimately responsible for the proper functioning of the natural, moral and sacrificial orders.

The Purva Mimansa was postulated by Jamini. The ideology of Poorva Mimansa was to counteract the challenge by Buddhism and vedanta which mar- ginalized the Vedic supremacy and sacrifices. This school got momentum in Gupta period and reached its climax in 7th-8th century. Sabara and Kumaril Bhatta were two main interpretators. It was one of the major forces to the decline of the Buddhism in India, but later itself was eclipsed by the Vedanta.

Vedanta #

Vedanta means Veda end or the purpose or goal of the Vedas. It was given by Badrayana or Maharishi Vyasa, who is one of the 7 chiranjivis and wrote “Mahabharta”.

Sub-schools of Vedanta #

Advaita #

Its proponent wes Adi Shnakara and his Guru Gaudapada. The essence of this Vedanta is that “Brahman is the only reality, and the world, as it appears, is illusory.”

Vishishtadvaita #

Its proponent was Râmânuja. The basic theory is that “jîvâtman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical. Brahman, matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities”. Vishishtadvaita advocates Bhakti to attain God.

Dvaita #

The proponent of the Dvaita was Madhwâchârya.

This theory is also known as Tatvavâdâ – The Philosophy of Reality. It identifies God in the Brah- man (Universe) and its incarnations such as Vishnu and Krishna. It says that all individual souls (jîvâtmans) and matter as eternal are mutually separate entities.

Dvaitâdvaita #

The theory of Dvaitâdvaita was given by Nimbarka. It is based upon the early school of

Bhedâbheda of Bhaskara. It says that jîvâtman is at once the same as yet different from Brahman. The jiva relation may be regarded as dvaita from one point of view and advaita from another. This school identifies God in Krishna.

Shuddhâdavaita #

The proponent of Shuddhâdavaita was Vallabha. It says that World is Leela of God that is Krishna and he is Sat-Chita-Aananda. It identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation. Vallabha was also a famous saint of Pushti Marg. He won the famous debate of Brahmavad over Shankars.

Achintya Bhedâbheda #

The proponent of Achintya Bhedâbheda was Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was a follower of the Dvaita vedanta of Sri Madhwa- charya. The doctrine of Achintya Bhedâbheda or inconceivable and simultaneous one-ness and difference states that the soul or energy of God is both distinct and non-distinct from God and he can be experienced through a process of long devotion. It identified God in Krishna. This Philosophy is followed by ISKCON.

Purnâdvaita or Integral Advaita #

The proponent of Purnâdvaita was Shri Aru- bindo. He propounded this doctrine in his “The Life Divine”. synthesized all the exant schools of Vedanta and gave a comprehensive resolution integrating cues from the Western metaphysics and modern science. Sri Arubindo is known to be one, who restored the umbilical cord of the Vedantic exegesis with the Vedas.

Modern Vedânta #

The proponent of Modern Vedânta was Swami Vivekananda. His phislosophy says that the condi- tions of abject poverty should be removed, only then will people be able to turn their minds toward God.

Epics #

Ramayan #

Created by Maharishi Valmiki. Consists of 24,000 verses in seven books (Chandass) and 500 sargas) and tells the story of Rama. Verses in the Ramayana are written in a 32-syllable meter called

anustubh and ranges in 50000 lines in total. Valmiki is also regarded as India’s First Poet. Father Kamil Bulke, author of Ramakatha, has identified over 300 variants of Ramayana. It inspired Tulsikrita Rama- yan “Ram Charit Manas” in 1576 by Tulsi Das.

Mahabharta #

The Mahabharta is attributed to Maharishi Vyas and the tale known as Bharta is a shorter version of 24,000 verses, while the Mahabharta contains 1 Lakh verses and 1.8 million words which makes it 10 times longer than “Iliad and Odyssey combined” and 4 times of Ramayana.

Puranas #

They are late descriptions of ancient legends and consist of history of the universe from creation to destruction, genealogies of kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology, philosophy, and geography. They are colored with superstitions and also represent a corrupt form of Hindu Philosophy. 18 major Puranas are as follows:

• Agni Purana which has 15,400 verses.
• Srimad Bhagavata Purana which has 18,000 verses. The most celebrated and popular of the Puranas, telling of Vishnu’s ten Avatars. Its tenth and longest chapter narrates the deeds of Krishna, introducing his childhood exploits, a theme later elaborated by many Bhakti movements.
  • Bhavishya Purana which has 14,500 verses.
  • Brahma Purana which has 24,000 verses.
  • Brahmanda Purana which has 12,000 verses; includes Lalita Sahasrana- mam, a text some Hindus recite as prayer.
  • Brahmavaivarta Purana which has 18,000 verses.
  • Garuda Purana which has 19,000 verses.

Harivamsa Purana which has 16,000 verses; more often considered itihâsa.

• Linga Purana which has 11,000 verses.
• Markandeya Purana which has 9,000 verses;

includes Devi Mahatmyam, an important text for Shaktas, Shortest Purana.

• Matsya Purana which has 14,000 verses.
• Narada Purana which has 25,000 verses.
• Padma Purana which has 55,000 verses.

Skanda Purana which has 81,100 verses, the longest Purana.

• Surya Puarana.
• Vamana Purana which has 10,000 verses.
• Vayu Purana which has 24,000 verses.
• Vishnu Purana which has 23,000 verses. Apart from the above there are Kurmi Purana,

Shiv Purana also.

Upaveda #

Upaveda means applied knowledge and are traditional literatures which contain the subjects of certain technical works. They are as follows:

• Âyurveda: Deals in Medicine and associated with the Rigveda.
• Dhanurveda: Deals in Archery and associ- ated with the Yajurveda.
• Gândharvaveda: Deals with Music and Dance and associated with the Samaveda.
• Shastrashastra: Deals with military technol- ogy and associated with the Atharvaveda.

THE   VEDIC   POLITICAL,   SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC LIFE #

The Geography in Vedic Texts #

Based on the geographical data in the Vedic literature, we can analyse about the Aryan expansion in India.

The country of Aryans #

The Aryans used the term Sapta Saindhavas as the region where they settled down. They used this term in the context of country. The country of the Aryan was also designated as Aryavarta in the latter Scriptures. The Rig-Vedic Aryans had not yet established settlements in the southern India.

The Sapta Saindhavas country of the Rig Vedic period was bounded by the Himalayas and Tibet in

the east, Turkistan in the north, Afghanistan, in the west and the Aravallis in the south. The Ganga and the mountains of the Vindhya were the barriers not easy to cross in those days.

The Rivers #

When the early Rig Vedic hymns were written, the focus of Aryan culture was the region between the Yamuna and Sutudri (Sutluj), and along the upper course of the river Saraswati. The Saraswati river is now an insignificant stream, losing itself in the desert of Rajasthan, but then it flowed broad and strong. Out of thirty-one river mentioned in the Vedic texts, about twenty-five names occur in the hymns of the Rig-Veda alone. In the Nadistuti, the Rig-Veda enumerates several streams most of which belong to the Indus system.

The Mountains #

The Rig Vedic people knew about the Himala- yas but did not mention about the land south of the Yamuna, and they did not mentioned the Vindhyas Mountains or Satpura even. The other hills referred to are Arjika, Mujavant, Silament (Suleman range), etc., which were all ridges of the Himalayas.

The Seas #

The reference of seas in the early Rig Vedic text is doubtful. However, in the later-Vedic lit- erature, Samudram actually means the sea. There are references to eastern and western oceans in the Satapatha Brahmana, which indicate acquaintance with the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea in the later Vedic era.

The Deserts #

The Rig Vedic Aryans were not familiar with any kind of desert. However, an implied reference to Maru as the country of desert mounds near Kuruk- shetra has been traced in Taittiriya Aryanka.

Name of the Places, Cities and Towns #

Vedic culture was essentially a rural culture, and cities had not emerged, no important place name is hence recorded. In the Rig-Veda it was because of the migratory nature of the tribes and in the later-Ve- dic period of the regions comes to be known by the names of the tribes who controlled them.

THE RIG-VEDIC POLITY #

Tribes and the Dasarajana Yudha #

The entire territory of the Vedic Aryans was divided into a number of tribal principalities, ruled normally by the leaders. The Bharatas were the most important Aryan tribe, after whom the India came to be known as Bharata.

In connection with the famous Dasrajna Yudha or the battle of ten kings, mentioned in various hymns of the Rig-Veda, many important Vedic tribes and their personalities are found mentioned. The battle of ten kings was between Sudas, a Bharata king of the Tritsu family and the confederacy of ten well-known tribes- Puru, Yadu, Turvasa, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Paktha, Bhalanas, Shiva and Vishanin. The former five are said to be Aryan tribe while the later 5 are said to be Non-Aryan tribes. In the bloody and decisive battle on the banks of river Parusni, the Bharatas emerged victorious.

The Purus were another very important tribe in the days of the Rig-Veda. They were closely connected with Tritsus and the Bharatas, and lived on either side of the Saraswati. The Anus, Druhyus, Yadus and Turvasas were the allies of the Purus against the Bharatas. These five are the five peoples (Panchjanah) fo the Rig-Veda. The name Yadu and Turvasa normally occur together in the Rig-Veda.

Jana, Rajana and Aspects of Land Territory #

The tribe was known as Jana. The chief of the tribe was a Rajan. Rajan was protector of the tribe and its cattle. He fought wars on behalf of his Jana. Rajan was used for the tribal chief who was primarily a military chieftain leading the tribe in wars for the sake of taking possession of cows and other cattle wealth but not taking over possession of territories. This implies that the concept of land territory was completely absent in early Rig Vedic Era. The absence of territory is also proved by the fact that the term Jana appears many times in Rig- Veda but Janapada never appears. The term Rajya appears once and Rashtra appears for 10 times. It has been thus concluded that the territorial aspect of the polity appeared in the end of the Rig-Vedic Period.

Here we must note that the Rajan was the leader of the people belonging to a particular tribe and not

the ruler of any territory. This is why he was known as Janasya gopa or Gopati Janasya.

The rajan was one of the equals whose posi- tion was hereditary position generally but there are several reference, which suggest that the Rajan owned his office to the choice of the people. The Atharvaveda gives references for the election of the king by the tribesmen (visa).

The Grama and the Vajrapati #

The term Gram appearing 13 times in the Rig- Veda, does not refer to a village, but is essentially a military tribal unit. A war or battle was thus called Sangrama. The Vrajapati was in charge of commonly held tribal pasture land and was the leader of the family. Vajrapati used to lead in the battles, and later became synonymous with the Gramani who himself originally was the head of the tribal unit called grama.

Taxation : The Bali #

The Rajan could not have an elaborate admin- istrative machinery because the nature of the Rig Vedic economy. An economy in which the surplus was very small, the Rajan received only bali, i.e. offering to a prince or to a god from the conquered people. However these tributes were neither regular and nor stipulated and hence cannot be called a tax.

Military & Spy functionalities #

There was no regular standing army. The military functions were invested in the Vedic assemblies. All the three persons viz. the Vrajapati, Kulapa (head of the family) and the Gramani functioned as military leaders. The Rajan held the Spies called Spasa to keep an eye on the conduct of the people.

Ugra and Jivagribha were two officials prob- ably meant for dealing with the criminals. The Madhyamasi seems to have acted as a meditator in disputes. There were no code of law in the early Vedic era.

The Earliest Tribal Assembly – Vidatha #

Vidatha appears for 122 times in the Rig-Veda and seems to be the most important assembly in the Rig Vedic period. Vidatha was an assembly meant for secular, religious and military purpose. The Rig- Veda only once indicated the connection of woman

with the Sabha whereas Vidatha is frequently asso- ciated with woman. Women actively participated in the deliberations with men. Vidatha was the earliest folk assembly of the Aryans, performing all kinds of functions- economic, military religious and social. The Vidatha also provided common ground to clans and tribes for the worship of their gods.

Sabha & its Sabhavati #

The term Sabha denotes both the assembly (in early Rig-Vedic) and the assembly hall (Later Rig-Vedic). Women who were called Sabhavati also attended this assembly. It was basically a kin-based assembly and the practice of women attending it was stopped in later-Vedic times. RigVeda speaks of the Sabha also as a dicing and gambling assembly, along with a place for dancing, music, witchcraft, and magic. It discussed pastoral affairs and performed judicial and administrative functions and exercised judicial authority.

Samiti #

The references to samiti come from the latest books of the Rig-Veda showing that it assumed importance only towards the end of the Rig-Vedic period. Samiti was a folk assembly in which people of the tribe gathered for transacting tribal business. It discussed philosophical issues and was concerned with religious ceremonies and prayers. References suggest that the Rajan was elected and re-elected by the Samiti.

The differentiations between Sabha and Samiti #

In the beginning, there was no difference between the Sabha and the Samiti. Both were called daughters of Prajapati. Both were mobile units led by chiefs who kept moving along with the forces. The only difference between Sabha and Samiti seems to be the fact that Sabha performed judicial functions, which the Samiti did not. Later, the sabha became a small aristocratic body and samiti ceased to exist.

The Gana or the Republic #

A Gana was a assembly or troop. The leader of the gana is generally called Ganapati .

The Parishad #

The early parishad seems to be a tribal military

assembly, partly matriarchal and partly patriarchal. However, the variety of the references lead to the non-Vedic character of the parishad. In later-Vedic period, it tended to become partly an academy and partly a royal council dominated by the priests, who functioned as teachers and advisers.

Rig Vedic Society #

The family was the basis of the social structure in Rig Vedic society. The Jana or the tribal society was given importance. There is another term men- tioned in Vedic text is Vis which means a clan. Vis consisted of many gramas, which was a tribal unit meant for fighting (Samgrama). The society was divided into smaller gramas. Whenever there was a clash between gramas, it was a Sangrama.

Patriarchy #

The family was a joint unit and patriarchal society. Birth of a son was desired repeatedly. The institution of marriage was established. Status of women was equal to men and they received the Upanayan samskaras. They studied Vedas and some of them composed Vedic Hymns. There was pres- ence of practice of polygamy as well as Polyandry. The eldest male member of the family was known as Kulapa (protector of the family). The social structure was based on kinship, which was rather simple. Terms for father, mother, brother, sister, son and daughter existed distinctly but nephews, grandsons and cousins were known by a common term naptri.

Father’s and mother’s were known by a common term.

The Evolution of Varna System #

There was Varna system, which was mainly based upon the color. Initially the society had only Aryans, who were fair in color. They conquered the indigenous people who were dark in color and once conquered they were used as slaves and called “Dasa”. The Dasyu have been identified as the enemies of the Aryan Vedic tribes. A relation between Dasa and Dasyu has not been established, however, Dasyu seams to be derived from Iranian Dahyu which means a tribe.

In the Rig Vedic era, the tribal society was divided among 3 groups Warriors, priests and common public. Later the fourth division Shudras

appeared in the later Vedic society. The division of 4 Varnas viz. Brahman, Kshatriya , Vaishya and Shudra was initially not very sharp and based upon the occupation. However, it later became sharp and based upon birth.

Marriage and women #

Despite of the patriarchal character of the fam- ily, the position of women was much better in the Rig Vedic period than in later times. They could attend assemblies and offer sacrifices along with their husbands. Five women have been mentioned as composers of hymns out of which Ghosha, Lopamudra and Apala are famous. Girls were normally married off after puberty (between the age of 16 and 17). Unmarried girls grew up in the home of their parents. Some unmarried woman like Visvavara and Apala offered sacrifices on their own. There are also evidences of widow remarriage in the Rig-Veda. Marriage as an institution was well, established,

Education #

In the early Rig-Vedic era, entire instruction was given orally. Art of writing does not seem to have developed yet. In the well known Gayatri mantra there is a prayer to savitri for the stimulation of the intellect. There were women teachers. Many of them possessed the highest spiritiual knowledge. Maitreyi and Gargi were gifted scholars. Rishis who com- posed hymns founded their own schools separately to teach their pupils and every person among the vis was entitled to learn Vedic mantras.

In the later-Vedic phase, with the development of varna asramas, education began with an investiture ceremony (upanayan). Since Upanayan was confined to three upper Varnas, the sudras were not entitled to education. Sometimes girls were also encouraged. When teacher was satisfied with the student, last sermon called snatakopadesa (kind of convocation) was delivered.

Institution of Gotra #

Gotra or cowpen was a mechanism for widen- ing social ties a new relationship were established between hitherto unrelated people. It is possible that animals were herded in common and such a place was known as gotra and from this it acquired the character of an exogamous institution.

Amusements and entertainments #

Music, both vocal and instrumental, was well known. We have been told that the Vedic Aryans played on the Vina and flute Vana to the accompa- niment of drums and cymbals.

Vedic Era #

Dancing was common. The chariot race was a favourite sport and source of entertainment. Chariot race was a symbolic source of political authority of the king. The fascination of gambling and the ruin caused by its addiction find mention in the Rig-Veda.

House holding #

The Griha sutra prescribes a code of conduct, which gives a fairly good idea of the manners and etiquette of the later-Vedic age. A guest (atithi) was welcomed at all times and special guests, like the guru, the king, and the father-in-law, etc. were given special treatment. Respect for the elders self-restraint, moral purity, abstinence of all kinds and faithfulness were some of the virtues. Cleanli- ness was a passion. Daily bath, washing of the feet and hands every now and then, and purifying the atmosphere with Vedic mantras were a part of ritual when ritualism acquired special significance in the later-Vedic age. It became one of the many sources of the development of hierarchy and the supremacy for the Brahmanas.

Eating Habits #

The main cereal produced by the Rig Vedic people was Yava or barley. Wheat and rice where not known to them. Godhuma or wheat is mentioned in several later-Vedic texts only. Yava was also a generic term for various kinds of cereals. In lat- er-Vedic times we have evidence of rice (Vrihi), bean-pulse (masa), sesamum (tila), millet (syamaka), kidney bean (mudga) mustard (sarshapa), etc. Milk, Milk products and cattle meat was popular. Alco- holic drinks were known and common. Soma and Sura are two intoxicating liquors. Sura may be a kind of beer and Soma was acceptable to Gods.

Dress code #

Two pieces of cloth were normally worn- the upper garment was called uttariya and the lower one

was known as antariya. The dress for the male and the female did not differ much.

Health and hygiene #

Everyone aspired for and everyone was blessed to live for a hundred years. Epilepsy was common and it affected the children as well. Superstitions and magical charms were employed to cure the diseases. Miraculous cures are ascribed to the twin-gods, the Ashvins, who are the great healers of diseases and experts in the surgical art. They were divine phy- sicians who restored eyesight and cured the blind, sick and maimed.

Rig Vedic Economy #

The importance of Cow #

Rig Vedic economy was primarily pastoral . They domesticated Pashu (which included cattle, horse and even human beings), as opposed to Mriga, i.e. wild animals. Cattle was synonymous with wealth and a wealthy person was called Gomat. Cattle was so important that the terms of battle were derived from Gau itself, such as Gavisti, Gosu, Gavyat, Gavyu. Godhuli was a measure of time. Gopa and Gopati were epithets given to the king. Duhitri was the term used for daughter because she used to milk the cow. One of the four categories of gods was known as Gojata, i.e. cowborn.

When the Vedic people encountered buffalo in India they called it Gauri and Gavala or cow-haired. The cattle obtained in raids were divided among the families. Cattle formed an important item of donation and it may also have formed a part of bali, the tribute given to the raja by the clan or vis members. The cattle in general and cow in particular was the main medium of exchange during the Rig Vedic period.

The economy was based upon agriculture. The people were well acquainted with the sowing, harvesting, threshing and various agro seasons. The people were pastoral, Cow was revered but the cows, and bulls were sacrificed too. The gifts to the priests were in terms of number of Cows and women slaves but not in measurements of lands.

Crafts and Metallurgy #

All kinds of crafts were practiced. There were potters, Chariot makers, carpenters, and weaver and

leather workers. The metal work was known as follows:

• Copper was known as “Ayas”.
• Gold was known as Hiranya.
• Iron was also known as was known as Shy- ama or Krishna Ayas.

THE VEDIC RELIGION #

The Worship of Nature #

The Aryans were solely theists. They con- templated about life and the world was from the spiritual standpoint. The Vedic Aryans believed in the concept of one in many. They worshipped the forces of nature, but at the same time believed in the basic unity of nature.

The Vedic people worshipped many gods not because of the fear of natural phenomena but for gaining their favours. All the natural phenomena such as the sky, thunder, rain, air were believed to be guided by their presiding deities, while natural devastations were taken to be an expression of their wrath. The hymns of the Rig-Veda were mainly sung for the glorification of the gods in order to appease them. God was regarded as the ruler, ordainer of the period of life, protector of men and giver of happiness.

This implies that the religion of the Vedic Ary- ans was a form of nature worship. There were no places of worship like temples. There are no indi- cations in the Rig-Veda of any “temples reared by mortal hands” and consecrated as places of worship. On the contrary, every householder, every patriarch of his family, lighted the sacrificial fire in his own home and poured libations of the Soma juice and prayed to the gods for happiness to his family, for abundant crops and wealth and cattle, for immunity from sickness, and for victory over the black aborig- ines. There was no separate priestly caste, and men did not retire into forests and subject themselves to penances in order to meditate on religion and chant these hymns.

Natural phenomena were conceived as the expression of some spiritual different appearances of various gods. For the different appearances of the sky different deities were imagined, such as

Varuna, Indra, Mitra, Dyus. Most of these natural events were personified and it was the birth of first mythology in the world.

Rig Vedic Gods #

Dyu, Mithra, Varuna #

Aryans were a warlike race with a capacity for active enjoyments, and an appreciation of all that was lovely and joyous in nature. They looked up to the beauteous and bright sky, and worshipped it under the name of Dyu or Dyaus, equivalent to the Greek Zeus and the first syllable of the Jupiter.

They also called the sky of day by the name of Mithra corresponding to the Zend Mithra, and they called the sky of night Varuna, corresponding to the Greek Ouranos.

These common names under which the sky-god was worshipped by the different Aryan natives of the ancient times prove that the sky was worshipped under these names by the primitive Aryans in their original home.

Thus, earliest divine power in Vedic literature is Dyaus. Dyu or Dyaus is the name of the sky or heaven that shines, and is the most ancient name for the divine power among the Aryans. It is the same word as the Zeus of the Greeks and the Jupiter of the Latins, the Tiu of the Saxons and the Zio of the Germans, and the name of the Deity among modern nations. Dyaus was referred as Dyaus Pitr, which later became Jupiter. Pitr means Prithvi and Dyaus was coupled with prithivi and the two Dyaus-Prithivi are the universal parents.

Varuna, apart from being the god of the sky, is also the god of law of nature called Rita. Varuna is also lord of the Patal Loka (Under world). He is one of the most prominent Devas in the Rig-Veda, and lord of the heavens and the earth.

Indra and Marut #

While the Hindu Aryans of the Punjab continued to worship the ancient sky-god under the ancient names of Dyu, Mitra, and Varuna, they paid special homage to the sky that rains, which they called Indra. Rise of rivers and the luxuriance of crops depend on the rain-giving sky, and in course of time, Indra became the most prominent deity in the Vedic society.

Indra was conceived as a warlike deity, battling with the clouds, called Vritra, to obtain copious tor- rents of rain for man, and fighting with the demons of darkness, called Panis, to restore to the world the light of the morning. The Maruts or storm-gods were supposed to help Indra in his contest with the reluctant clouds, for in India the first showers of the rainy season are often attended with storms and thunder.

Thus, Indra was the most important divinity and was lord of war. 250 hymns have been devoted to only Indra in Rig Veda, which is highest for any of the Gods. His other names are:

• Chariot-warrior (Rathestha).
• A winner ( Jitendra).
• Soma Drinker (Somapa).

Indra is mentioned as son of Dyaus. He killed a demon Vritra, so he is known as Vritrahan. He destroyed the forests known as Purandhar. He held the thunderbolt (Vajra) with which he destroyed the enemies. His wife is Indrani or Sachi (energy).

Aditi, Sun, Savithri #

Next to the sky, the sun was the most prominent object of the worship of the ancient Hindus. Aditi was the limitless light of sky, and her sons, the Adityas were the suns of the different months of the year. Surya was coterminous with Greek Helios, the Latin Sol, and the Teuton Tyr.

Savitri is another name of the same deity Sun, and the sacred hymn, the Gayathri Mantra, is a verse dedicated to Savithri. Please note that Vishnu, which in later Hindu mythology has become a name of the Supreme Preserver of all beings, was a name of the sun in the Vedic age. The rising sun, the sun at Zenith, and the setting sun were considered the three steps of Vishnu striding across limitless space.

Agni Soma Cult apart from lightning the Holy Fire, the Soma-drinking was another mark of the Arya cult, which may therefore be called ‘the Agni- Soma cult.’ Soma is a product of the Himalayan regions, so that when the cult moved down to the plains, Kirata (huntress) girls from the Himalayan hills supplied it to Brahmanas. The use of Soma, like the worship of Agni indicates the Himalayan region as the place where the Agni-Soma cult first originated.

Agni #

Fire or Agni was an object of worship. No sacrifice to the gods could be performed without libations or offerings to the fire, and Agni was there- fore considered to be the priest among the gods. But Agni is not only the terrestrial fire in the Rig Veda, he is also the fire of the lightning and the sun, and his abode was in heaven. The early sages Bhrigus discovered him there, and Atharvavan and Angiras, the first sacrificers, installed him in this world, as the protector of men.

Thus, Agni is the God of fire and acceptor of sacrifices. He was considered an intermediary between Gods and men. 200 hymns have been devoted to only Agni in Rig Veda while Agni is mentioned in 218 hymns.

Vayu and Rudra #

Vayu or the wind is sometimes invoked in the Rig Veda. The Maruts or storm-gods are often invoked, as we have seen before, and are consid- ered the helpers of Indra in obtaining rain for the benefit of man. Rudra, the loud-sounding father of the Maruts, is the Thunder, and in later Hindu mythology, this name has been appropriately chosen for the Supreme Destroyer of all living beings.

Soma & Brihaspati #

Agni, or fire, received special homage because he was necessary for all sacrifice. The libation of soma juice was similarly regarded sacred, and Soma was worshipped as a deity. Similarly, the prayer, which accompanied the libations or offerings, was also regarded as a deity, and was called Braha- manaspati. In later Hindu mythology, Brahman is selected as the name of the Supreme Creator of all living beings. Soma was prepared by extracting juice from the stalks of a certain plant, and the Soma God was god of the plants. 123 hymns are dedicated to Soma and most of them are from Soma Mandala.

Soma & Haoma #

The fermented juice of the plant called Soma appears to have been the only intoxicating drink used in Vedic times. So much were the ancient Aryans addicted to this drink, that Soma was soon

worshipped as a deity both in India and in Iran (under the name Haoma in the latter country), and we find one entire Mandala, or Book, of the Rig- Veda, dedicated to this deity.

Visvedevas #

They are various Vedic gods taken together as a whole headed by Indra. 70 hymns are dedicated to Visvedevas in Rig-Veda.

Ashwins or Ashwinikumars #

Light and Darkness naturally suggested to the early Aryans the idea of twin gods. The sky (Vivasvat) is the father, and the Dawn (Saranyu) is the mother of the twin Ashwins and the legend goes on to say that Saranyu ran away from Vivasvat before she gave birth to the twins. There is a simi- lar legend in Greek mythology, where and Erinnys (corresponding to Saranyu) ran away from her lover, and gave birth to Areion and Despoina. The original idea is that the Dawn and Gloaming disappears, and gives birth to Light and to Darkness.

Please note that later, Aswins lost thier original character and simply became the physician gods, responsible for healing of the sick and the wounded, tending mortals with kindness. There are other twins Yama and Yami, who are kids of same parents – the Dawn and Sky. They also acquired different chareters in Rig Veda.

Yama & Yami #

Yama is considered to have been the first mortal who died and espied the way to the celestial abodes, and in virtue of precedence, he became the ruler of the departed. He is the guardian of the world of Dead. His twin sister is Yami and both Yama and Yami are Children of Surya. Yamini means Night and Yami is also known as Yamuna.

Usha #

Usha has been described as far – extending, many – tinted, brilliant Dawn, whose abode is unknown. She harnesses her chariots from afar and comes in radiance and glory. She is the young, the white-robed daughter of the sky, and the queen of all earthly treasures. She is like the careful mistress of the house who rouses everyone from his slumbers and sends him to his work. Yet she is radiant as a

bride decorated by her mother for the auspicious ceremony, and displaying her charms to the view.

Such are the fond epithets and beautiful similes with which the Hindu Aryans greeted the fresh and lovely mornings of a tropical sky.

Other Rig Vedic Gods #

• Pusan – The guardian of the Jungle Paths and Roads.
• Aditi – Goddess of Eternity.
• Gandhrava – Divine Musicians.
• Rbhus – three semi divine deities of Rig- Veda.

Apsaras #

Dancers of the celestial Courts. Please note that Rig Veda mentions Apsara as the wife of Gand- harva. Rig Veda allows for the existence of more than one Apsara. The maiden Apsara is Urvashi who became the wife of king Pururavas, first king of the Somavamsha. Narrative of Urvashi and Pururavas is found in the Rigveda and the Shatapatha Brahmana

• Rudra – Archer of Gods.
• Aranyanai – Goddess of Forests.
• Usha – Goddess of Dawn.
• Prithvi – Goddess Earth.

Comparision of the Greek Dieties and Ancient Hindu Dieties #

There was an essential difference between the Hindu gods of the Vedic age and the Greek gods of the Homeric age. The first thing we should note that the Sanskrit language is nearer and closer than the Greek to the original Aryan tongue, yet Hindu conceptions go nearer to the original Nature-wor- ship of the primitive Aryans. The Gods of Homeric Greeks have attained a marked individuality and the charecters are so individualistic that “nature” almost escapes. But the Hindu Gods are still the powers of Nature and show manifestations of Nature. For example, we can identify Indra with Rains easily but can not identify Zeus with Sky. Therefore, we can say that Hindu conceptions are more true to their original sources.

THE LIFE IN LATER VEDIC AGE #

General Changes #

The Sabhas and Samitis continued to hold the ground, however the women were not allowed to sit in Sabha.Brahmins and Nobles took the place.

The King became important and territorial authority became important. The term Rastra which indicated a territorial country got prominent in the later Vedic Age.

Ashvamedha Yagya was considered to authorize the unquestioned authority over an area where the Royal Horse could run. The levy of taxes started and became prominent and the officer responsible for this function was sangrihitri. The standing army was not possessed by the king even in Later Vedic period and gramas mustered in times of war.

Changes in Economy #

The life became sedentary and the domestication of animals and cultivation increased. Cattle were still the currency and principle movable property. The idea of private possession of lands started taking shape. Ironsmiths, weavers, jewellers, dyers, potters, are the new classes of artisans. Trade was also boosted.

The Gold piece of specific weight Satamana was used as a currency rate. Use of Gold as currency is mentioned in Satapatha Brahman. Nishka was another popular currency. The other metallic coins were Suvarna and Krishnala. Barter system still existed.

Money lending as a trade was prevalent.

The Four Varnas #

The society was now divided into 4 varnas viz. Brahmans, Kahstriyas, Vaish and Shudras. Each of them was assigned its duty. The vaishyas were com- mon people who were responsible for producing the agricultural commodities and rearing of the cattle. The engaged in trade and were called vaniks. Nagara was used for the first time, which meant a city and beginning of town life.

Types of Marriages in later Vedic Ages #

Marriage Type Description #

Brahma Vivah: Marriage of a girl with the boy of same Varna with Vedic rites and rituals.

Daiva Vivah: When father donated his daughter to a priest as a part of Dakshina.

Arsa Vivah: a token bride-price of a Cow and a Bull was given.

Prajapati Vivah: Marriage without dowry.

Gandharva Vivah: was a kind of love marriage or swyamavara type.

Asura Vivah: Marriage by Purchase.

Paisach Vivah: Seduction of a girl while sleep- ing or mentally unstable due to a drink.

Rakshasha Vivah: Marriage by abduction.

Anuloma and Pratiloma Vivah #

The marriage of a man of higher Varna with a girl from lower Varna was called “Anuloma Vivah”. It was allowed by the sacred texts. The marriage of a girl of higher Varna with a man of a lower Varna was called “Pratiloma Vivah” and it was not allowed in the texts.

New castes by Intermarriage of four castes: Account of Vashishtha.

• The offspring of a Sudra and a Brahman woman becomes a Chandala.
• That of a Sudra and Kshatriya woman, a Vaina.
• That of a Sudra and Vaisya woman, an Ant- yavasayi.
• The son begotten by a Vaisya on a Brahman woman becomes a Ramaka.
• The son begotten by a Vaisya on a Kshatriya woman, a Paulkasa.
• The son begotten by a Kshatriya on a Brah- man woman becomes a Suta.
• Children begotten by Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and Vaisyas on women of the next lower, second lower, and third lower castes become respectively Ambashthas, Ugras, and Nisha- das.
• The son of a Brahman and a Sudra woman is a Parasava.

Four Purushartha #

Purushartha refers to a goal, end or aim of

human existence. The Four Purushartha of Hinduism are as follows:

• Dharma: Dharma is given the foremost rank in the scriptures. Today, it coresponds to religious, social and/or moral righteousness.
• Artha: material and/or financial means of living.
• Kama: pleasure including sensual pleasures.
• Moksha: Liberation, or renunciation as well as detachment.
• The Hindu Philosophy says that Dharma is the gateway to Moksha.

Ashrama System #

Four stages of the lifespan of 100 years were not established in the early Vedic era. They were well established in the later Vedic era.

Vedic era and 4 Ashrams were:

• Brahmacharya Ashram: The first 25 years were set for student life.
• Grihastha Ashram: The age from 25 to 50 years was kept for having a family and discharging the worldly duties such as giving birth to children and raising them.
• Vanaprastha Ashram: Age from 50-75 years was fixed for partial retirement and living life in forests.
• Sanyas Ashram: The last age of 75-100 years was fixed for complete retirement from the world.

Please note that 4th ashram has not been men- tioned in early Vedic texts. The Sanyas ashram is mentioned in Jabala Upanishad.

Sacrifices & Rituals #

• Rajsuya: This sacrifice conferred supreme power to King.
• Asvamedha: Unquestioned control over an area.
• Vajapeya: It was a chariot race in which the Royal Chariot was to win race against the kinsmen. This elevated the Raja to a Samrat.
• Garbhadharana: The conception ceremony.

• Pumsavana: Ritual to procure a male child.
• Simantonayam: Ritual to ensure safety of the child in womb.
• Jatakarma: Birth ceremony performed prior to cutting the umbilical chord of the newborn infant
• Kulakarma: performed in 3rd year of the baby’s life.
• Upnayana: performed in the eighth year to confer dvija status.

Domestic Ceremonies #

• Garbhadhana (ceremony to cause conception).
• Pumsavana (ceremony to cause the birth of a male child).
• Simantonayana (arranging the hair of the pregnant wife).
• Jatakarman (ceremony on the birth of a child).
  • naming the child.
  • the first feeding.
  • the tonsure of the head.
  • the initiation.
  • the four vows for the study of the Vedas.
  • the bath of completion of studentship.
  • marriage.
  • and the five sacrifices to gods.

Objective of Garbhadhana rite, was supposed to secure conception.

Some Notable points #

• Kathopnishad deals with the dialogue between Nachiketa and Yama.
• “Satyamev Jayate” India’s motto comes from “Mundaka Upnishad”.
• Aitareya Brahman establishes Superiority of Brahmins.
• Shudra word comes in 10th Mandala of Rig- Veda.
• In the later Vedic period, divine royal theory started. The king in the center was called Raja, Samrat in East, Swarat in West, Virat in North and Bhoj in South.

• Coins were used in Later Vedic Age.
• Most mentioned River is Indus, Most revered river is Saraswati.
• The marriage of a widow to brother or rela- tive of the deceased was known as “Niyoga”.
• Rishi Agastya is known for Aryanization of South India.
• Jabala Upnishad mentions the 4 Ashrams for the first time.
• Swastika is said to be not only pre-Vedic but also Pre-Harappan and it existed from Baluch- istan, Indus Valley and even Turkmenistan. It is NOT an exclusive Aryan Symbol.
• Vaishya as a Varna has NO mention in Rig- Veda.
• Yavyavati is another name for Ravi in Rig- Veda.
• Agni was a God which was worshipped by Aryans as well as Ancient Iranians.
• A hymn in Rig Veda is devoted to Lopamudra. She was wife of rishi Agastya and credited with spreading the fame of the Lalita sahas- tranama. Her other names are Kaushitaki and Varaprada.
• Gargi was daughter of Rishi Vachaknu and is mentioned in the Sixth and the Eighth Brahmana of Brhadaranyaka Upanishad
• Atranjikheda is the place where largest depos- its of the Iron weapons have been found.

Comparison of the Harappa and Vedic Civilizations #

The sources of information of the Harappan civ- ilization are mainly archaeological, while the Vedic culture is mostly known from the literary sources.

Harappans are said to have been the original inhabitants of India while the Aryans are believed to have come to India from central Asia.

The Harappan civilization was urban in nature, Vedic culture was rural and pastoral. At best the Rig Vedic Aryans lived in fortified places protected by mud walls, and these cannot be regarded as towns in the Harappan sense.

In the Indus civilization, trade, internal and external, crafts as well as industries were the main sources of economy, Vedic Economy was initially pastoral and later became based upon agriculture and cattle rearing.

The agricultural operations, including the ploughing of fields, were better known to the lat- er-Vedic people.

Indus people did not know the use of iron. It was purely a copper-bronze culture, while the Vedic culture in its later phase is replete with references to iron.

The horse, which played a decisive role in the Aryan system of warfare, was not known to the Indus people. A few bones of horse and terracotta figure of a horse-like animal have been unearthed from surkotada.

Indus people were basically peace loving. Their arms (swords, daggers, arrow-heads, spears) were primitive in nature.

Aryans were warlike people and were conver- sant with all kinds of traditional arms and armour and had devised a fullfledged science of war.

Aryans worshiped Varuna, Indra, aditi and a large number of other deities which stood for the principal phenomena of nature. They performed sac- rifices and offered milk, ghee, etc. to their gods. The Harappans worshipped Pashupati, mother goddess, animals , snake and nature. The fire-altars were dis- covered from only one Harappan site at Kalibangan.

The Harappans practiced earth burials whereas the Aryans practiced cremation.

Harappan pottery called black or red pottery was wheel made and very distinctive in nature. The distinctive Aryan pottery is known as PGW (painted grey ware).

The Harappans were short statured, black in complexion. Aryans were tall, well-built and hand- some.

The Harappans ate all birds and animals includ- ing cow and calf. They ate wheat, barley and bread. The Aryans preferred Barley, milk and its products, specially ghee or butter and enjoyed Soma drink.

Cotton was the basic fabric of the Harappans while the Aryans put on woollen garments too.

Vedic Sanskrit is the mother of all non-Dravidian languages, Indus script still remains undeciphered.

VEDIC      INDIA,      SOME     MORE OBSERVATIONS #

A comparision of the Upanishada and Brahamanas #

The meaning of Upanishada adopted by Max Muller and usual ever since, makes the word mean firstly a session of pupils, hence secret doctrine, and secondly the title of a work on secret doctrine. Upa means nearby, Ni means down and sad means to sit. This implies that Upanaishada contain the instructions received by pupils sitting near a teacher. However, as per Oldenberg, the word Upanishada is derived from worship {Upasana}. Hopkins denotes that  Upanishada  denotes  a  subsidiary  treatise

{Upa-subsidiary} and does not account for secret meaning. Please note that all Upanishada have been passed down in a oral tradition and are parts of Shruti Literature.

The Upanishads represent one important fact of social life in India. The Brahmanas, which lay so much stress on ceremonialism, were composed by the priestly caste, but the Upanishads which mark the beginning of the rationalistic epoch were com- posed by the kingly class.

Concept of Rita and Dharma #

Dharma is so called, because it holds, Dharma holds the people. Etymologically, Dharma is derived from the root Dhr—to hold—and its meaning is ‘that which holds’ this world. Rita is predecessor to Dharma and is the Original Rig Vedic concept which refers to the principle of natural order which regu- lates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it. Rita is described as that which is ultimately responsible for the proper func- tioning of the natural, moral and sacrificial orders. In Rig Veda, Rita appears as many as 390 times. Rita has been characterized as “the one concept which pervades the whole of Rig-Vedic thought.

In the early Rig Vedic era, Rita was abstract, slowly the universal principle started mingling with the anthropomorphic tendencies of the Vedic period. In due course of time, it became associated with the actions of individual deities. The Rita became asso-

ciated with Varuna, the omniscient, all pervading sky God. Adityas became the Chariotters of Rita. Varuna became the friend & keeper of Rita. Var- una became the universal Power, which maintained Rita and was celebrated as having “separated and established heaven and earth, spreading them out as the upper and lower firmaments, himself enthroned above them as the universal king, ordering the immutable moral law, exercising his rule by the sovereignty of Rita”. (James 1969)

Eventually Dharma overshadowed Rita in the later Vedic Era. While Rita encompassed the eth- ical principles with a notion of cosmic retribution, Dharma was said to be a path to be followed as per the ordinances of Rita. Failing to follow this path meant appearance of various forms of calamity and suffering. Committing to the path of Rita was “Dharma” so we can say that Dharma was originally conceptualized as a subordinate component of Rita Dharma became a very useful instrument in framing religious, moral and social regulations, that interest in it and discussion of its applications to social and moral order eclipsed all discussions of metaphysical and theological ideas.

There was also an important change in later Vedic and Epic Era. The notion of Dharma shifted emphasis away from nature as executor of Rita and now it became more or less an individual duty to uphold the Dharma through one’s actions. This was called Karma. Karma is what one does to uphold the Dharma and thus, the emphasis from the natural order vanished and it became essentially related to the pains and pleasures one experiences in life, and this tried to explain the gross inequality and injustice in the world. So, Karma was somewhat opposite to Rita as well as Dharma. Karma became the central piece of Hindu philosophy in later Vedic era.

The Concept of Sapta Rishi #

Saptarshi or the seven sages are mentioned at many places in Vedic Literaure. The term “Sapta- rishis” is NOT mentioned in Vedic Richas but they are enumerated in different later Vedic texts, Upni- shads and Brahmanas. They are considred to be the patriarchs of Vedic Religion.

Ursa Major constelleation is coterminous with Sapta Rishi. Ursa Minor is coterminous with Laghu

Sapta Rishi. There is one more star slighly visible within the Saptarishi and it is called Arundhati.

The first list of the 7 sages was given by Jaiminiya Brahman. The rishis are Vasistha, Bhar- advaja, Jamadagni, Gautama, Atri, Visvamitra, and Agastya

The role played by the Saptarishis in the birth of Kartikeya, has been vividly described in Kumar- sambhava of Kalidasa.Rishi Agastya was one of the legendary sage, about whom a lot of traditions prevalent. His greatest feat was the reconciliation of Indra and the Maruts after Indra had been annoyed at his proposing to give the Maruts an offering to the exclusion of Indra. This feat is the subject of three hymns of the Rigveda. Agastya married Lopamudra, and appears in a strange dialogue with Lopamudra in Rigveda. In the Rigveda, this appears to show him as an ascetic who finally yields to temptation.

The story of Agastya and Lopamudra #

Lopamudra is also known as Kaushitaki and Varaprada, there is one hymn in the Rigveda is attributed to her. Lopamudra was created by sage Agastya with the most graceful parts of animals such as eyes of the deer etc. She spread the fame of the Lalita sahasranama (the thousand names of the Divine Mother). The meaning of word Lopamudra is “loss of beauty” which refers to the loss caused to the animals in her creation. Agastya created her, secretly introduced her to the palace of Vidarbha King, and later when she grew up asked the king to return her as his wife.

The Abhi-seka or coronation #

The Abhiseka meant consecration of a Vedic King (Rajan) after his election and was followed by coronation. Its a very elaborate ritual of vedic era. The consecration took place by sprinkling with water. ONLY the kings could be consecrated and please note that Abhiseka was an essential part of Rajsuya Yajna, the sacrifice of royal inauguration.

The Metals #

The exact metal denoted by this word when used by itself, as always in the Rigveda, is uncertain. The most probable accepted candidate for the use of word Ayas were either Copper or Bronze. In

Rigveda, Agni has been referred to as Ayodamstra which means “one that with teeth of Ayas”, the teeth refer to flames of Agni. The Vajanseyi samhita notes that Gold was Hiranya, Iron was Syama (also Syama Ayas), Lead was sisa, Tin was Trapu, Lohita Ayas was Copper, because of its red color.

Aryamnah Pantha or the Milky Way. #

The literal meaning of this word is “Aryaman’s Way” and is an expression which occurs in the Brahmanas and denotes the “Milky way”.

Seasons in Rig Veda #

Ritu is the word used for seasons and is repeatedly mentioned in Rig Veda. One of the passages of Rig Veda mentions that name of spring (vasanta), summer (grisma), and autumn (sarad). Another passage also deals with rainy season and the winter {hima, hemanta}, but Rig-Veda does not clearly demarcates the seasons. The Satapatha Brahmana mentions that four-monthly sacrifices were performed at the begining of each season, so clearly denoting 4 seasons. The later texts divide a year into 5 seasons viz. vasanta, grisma, varsa, sarad, hemanta-sisira. Later, 6 seasons are reckoned, hemanta and sisira being divided, so that the six seasons can be made parallel to the twelve months of the year. Hemanta was the last season of a year.

So, we can say that division of seasons into 6 ritus is NOT Rig Vedic.

Sita #

“Auspicious Sita! proceed onwards, we pray unto thee, that thou mayest bring us prosperity and an abundant crop”

The above is a part of of a hymn to the Gods of agriculture. Among them, we find mention of Sita— the field furrows, which produced the crops. Later on this furrow-goddess became the heroine of one of the two great Epics of ancient India: Ramayan, Nishka.

Every considerable Aryan village had its artisans in those days as now, and we have frequent mention of the construction of carts and chariots, and of the use of metals. The numerous references to arms and weapons in the hymns show that they were of common use. We are told of armours and helmets,

of the javelin, the sword and the battle-axe, of bows, arrows and quivers, of caparisoned war-horses and war-chariots. Similarly, there are references to ornaments made of gold and silver, to necklaces and breastplates, to bracelets, anklets, and golden crowns. The Nishka was probably a gold piece of a specified weight, used both as money and ornament. Metals were also extensively used for the manufac- ture of domestic utensils.

The story of Manu & Shraddha #

Ever thought about the meaning of Pandora’s Box? Pandora was the first women of the world as per the Greek Mythology. Each God contributed in her creation by giving her unique gifts. Zeus gave a Jar to Pandora with instructions that she not open it, she gave in to her curiosity and opened it. All the miseries and evils flew out to afflict. All evils of the humankind such as diseases and disasters were now open to afflict the humankind, but only one item left in the box. This one item was Hope and so, when we say opening Pandora’s Box, it means to create problems.

All mythologies have their own concepts of first man or woman. In Indian mythology, Manu and Shraddha were the first man and women and so Manu is called the progenitor of humankind. Manu is also the very first Brahman king to rule this earth, who saved mankind from the universal flood. The progencies of Manu are Manavas (Human kind). Manu had 10 offsprings, including one daughter named Ila. If we go in a little deep in the mythol- ogy, we find that there is NOT a single Manu. Each kalpa has 14 Manus and each of them rules one Manvantara or eon. There are 504000 Manvantaras in each 100 years of Brahma’s life.

The Manusmriti #

Manusmriti is the earliest text the Dharmashastra tradition and is known as laws of Manu. It was first translated by Sir William Jones in 1794. Manusmriti became a standard reference for all future Dharma- shastras. The Hindu traditions say that manusmriti has recorded the words of Brahma. It was composed in around 200-300 BC. Oldest known commentator

on Manusmriti was Bharuci and the famous com- mentator is Medatithi.

Dhratavatra #

In early Vedic era, there was no distinct the- ory of Kingship and King (Rajan) was generally a tribal chieftain. This chieftain was the holder of the established order and moral rule which was called Dhratavatra.

RISE OF NEW RELIGIONS #

The post Vedic society was divided into 4 var- nas viz. Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishyas and Shudras. Birth had become the basis of Varnas and two higher Varnas viz. Brahmins and Kshatriya were given privileges. The later period saw tensions rising in the Varnas. The two dominant Varnas Brahmins and Kshatriya competed for dominance. Kshatriya acted as rulers and the reacted against the domination of the priests of Brahmins.

Apart from that India was now developing as a agro based economy. The importance of trade increased and Vaishyas started getting more impor- tance. The Vaishyas came at third position after the Brahmins and Kshatriya and they looked for other religions which could improve their position. The money lending was a trade in post Vedic era, but Brahmins looked down upon this business. The Vaishya wanted some better religious position and that is one of the regions that the trader community “Vaishya” provided support to both Jainism and Buddhism.

In Vedic era, the killing the cattle for sacrifices was a common practice. This ritual was not accepted in the new agro economy. In fact except Brahmins, almost all common public was irked by the ritual- istic practices of the post Vedic period based upon exaggeration, superstition, Brahminical dominance. The position of Shudra got from worse to worst. Sanskrit, which was the prime language in the Vedic and post Vedic period, now, started losing charm. Most people spoke Prakrit. The Position of women got inferior. Buddhism and Jainism were the move- ments that started to reform the Hinduism. Both Gautam Buddha and Mahavira disputed the authority of the Brahmins.